THE 


GROCER'S  COMPANION 


A  X  D 


MERCHANTS  HAND-BOOK. 


CONTAINING  A   COMPREHENSIVE  ACCOUNT   OF   THE   GROWTH,    MANUFACTURE  AND 

QUALITIES  OF   EVERY  ARTICLE    SOLD    BY    GROCERS.       ALSO,    TABLES    OF 

WEIGHTS  AND   MEASURES,   AND    INFORMATION    OF  A   GENERAL 

NATURE     OF      VALUE     TO     GROCERS      AND     COUNTRY 

MERCHANTS. 


PRICE:    $2.00. 


BOSTON : 

NEW  ENGLAND  GROCER  OFFICE,  10  BROAD  STREET. 
BENJAMIN  JOHNSON,   PUBLISHER. 


Entered,  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1883,  by 

BENJAMIN  JOHNSON, 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,   at  Washington. 


IX  TRODU  CTIOX. 


IN  presenting  tliis  volume  to  our  readers  and  the  Retail  Grocery 
•Trade  of  New  England,  our  chief  and  indeed  only  object  is  to 
provide,  in  as  concise  and  comprehensive  form  as  possible,  a  truly- 
authentic  and  reliable  history  of  the  growth,  culture,  natural  proper- 
tics,  and  preparation  of  the  varied  and  numerous  articles  which  are 
now  incorporated  in  the  "Grocery  Trade,"  in  order  that  the  dealer 
and  his  assistants  may  not  only  be  aided  in  an  intelligent  discrimination 
of  the  character  and  quality  of  the  products  daily  brought  under  their 
notice,  but  give  them  a  lively  and  constantly  increasing  interest  in  the 
trade,  by  adding  to  their  store  of  practical  scientific  knowledge  of  the 
articles  dealt  in.  This  work  comprises,  within  itself,  all  the  uses  of 
a  Cyclopaedia,  a  Manual  and  a  Hand-Book,  all  the  necessary,  well- 
ascertained  and  authenticated  facts  being  condensed  into  the  smallest 
space  consistent  with  completeness  and  perspicuity.  Desiring  to  ren- 
der its  pages  as  interesting  as  possible,  we  have,  in  the  treatment  of 
the  various  sections,  endeavored  to  steer  clear  of  the  ponderous  argu- 
ment of  the  Treatise,  the  statistical  monotony  of  the  Cyclopaedia, 
and  the  meagre  description  of  the  Hand-Book — so  that  it  may  prove 
to  its  possessor  a  multum  in  parvo,  a  handy  and  compact  work  of 
reference,  which  shall  combine  amusement,  information  and  instruc- 
tion to  every  reader. 


THE  GROCER'S  COMPANION. 


ACID  PHOSPHATES.— The  introduction  of  acid  phosphates 
as  a  manufactured  product  into  our  commercial  price-lists  is  of  com- 
paratively recent  date,  though  fhey  long  held  a  place  in  the  Pharma- 
coeopia  as  a  medicinal  remedy.  Its  present  existence  as  a  popular 
food  product,  and  as  a  powerful  agent  in  building  up  and  strengthen- 
ing the  human  system,  is  due  to  the  scientific  research  and  business 
enterprise  of  Prof.  E.  N.  Horsford  of  Cambridge,  Mass.  The  in- 
trinsic value  of  the  preparation,  and  the  extraordinary  and  uniformly 
beneficial  results  achieved  by  its  use,  have  deservedly  gained  for  it  a 
permanent  and  firm  place  in  the  regular  market  quotations.  Being 
comparatively  unknown,  as  regards  its  chemical  combinations,  to  the 
general  public,  a  brief  description  of  its  composition,  properties  and 
,  influence  on  the  system  may  not  be  uninteresting. 

Phosphaiic  salts,  in  one  form  or  another,  are  always  present  in 
healthy  animal  organizations  —  as  phosphate  of  lime  in  the  bones, 
phosphates  of  potassa  and  soda  and  iron  in  the  cerebral,  nervous  and 
muscular  systems,  and  as  phosphoric  acid  in  the  <  ellular  structure  of 
the  stomach  ;  so  that  when  there  is  an  absence  or  deficiency  of  these 
phosphatic  acids  in  the  human  body,  sickness  and  disease  inevitably 
results.  In  such  a  case,  therefore,  the  individual  can  only  be  restored 
to  health  by  the  instant  and  constant  supply  of  these  phosphates  in 
adequate  and  suitable  proportion  to  the  condition  of  the  person. 

ADULTERATIONS.— It  has  always  been  the  fashion  to  blame 
the  Retail  Dealer  for  all  the  iniquities  of  adulteration,  regardless  of 
the  fact  that,  in  many  cases,  the  grower,  the  merchant,  or  some  one 
of  the  many  intermediate  parties  having  an  interest  in  the  product, 
are  much  more  frequently  the  guilty  parties.  Adulteration  is  now 


6  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

and  has  been  extensively  carried  on  in  almost  all  departments  of  com- 
mercial and  manufacturing  produce.  Even  the  articles  used  for 
adulterating  purposes  are  themselves  adulterated,  and  the  evil  has  no 
limit.  The  retail  grocer  is  never  an  advocate  of  adulteration,  though 
by  competition  and  prolonged  rivalry  he  may  be  compelled  unwillingly 
to  sanction  it.  Manufacturers  adulterate  for  the  sake  of  profit,  and 
are  driven  to  it  by  the  demand  for  cheap  goods.  A  fair  price  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  secure  pure  goods.  But  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
the  "wolf"  about  this  cry  of  adulteration.  Fifty  per  cent,  of  the 
supposed  "  adulterations  "  existing  in  the  New  England  markets  arc 
simply  admixtures  with  inferior  or  damaged  qualities,  and  disguised 
by  manipulation.  For  instance,  milk  is  generally  found  pure,  though 
devoid  of  all  cream  ;  the  most  popular  brands  of  mustard  are  largely 
44  adulterated  "  with  farina,  because  it  is  too  pungent  for  domestic 
use  in  its  natural  state.  It  cannot,  however,  be  denied  that  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  adulteration  exists  which  is  injurious  to  health, 
but  as  a  rule  it  exists  where  it  is  least  expected,  and  very  rarely  de- 
tected. Laws  of  a  specially  stringent  character  exist  in  many  States 
of  the  Union  ;  but,  unfortunately  in  most  cases,  the  Retail  Grocer, 
who  is  usually  innocent  and  ignorant  of  the  impurity,  suffers  the  lo.-s 
both  of  money,  custom  and  character.  The  chief  articles  of  "gro- 
cery," subject  to  k '  adulteration  "  or  "deterioration,"  may  be  enu- 
merated as  follows : 

COFFEE. — Owing  to  the  present  cheapness  of  pure  coffee,  there 
is  but  little  bona  fide  adulteration.  The  presence  of  a  coffee-mill  in 
a  grocer's  store  or  household  is  a  death-blow  to  the  introduction  ol' 
foreign  substances,  as  by  purchasing  the  roasted  bean  and  grinding 
it  themselves,  nothing  but  pure  coffee  of  some  grade  is  obtained. 
More  or  less  cheap  mixtures  are  sold  in  package  form,  but  it  is  uni- 
versally understood  that  they  are  mixtures,  consisting  of  chicory, 
peas,  rye,  etc.,  and  contain  but  a  limited  amount  of  coffee.  There 
is  no  one  article  in  the  grocery  warehouse  so  severely  and  success- 
fully manipulated  as  coffee.  It  commences  from  the  time  the  berry 
is  picked  and  prepared  for  the  market,  and  continues  until  it  reaches 
the  consumer.  The  producer  mixes  the  tail  ends  and  leavings  of  the 
old  crop  with  the  new.  The  middle  'men  or  commission  agents  at 
the  principal  points  where  coffee  is  accumulated  for  shipment,  manip- 
ulate it  by  changing  packages  and  marks,  polish  it  and  color  it  by 
chemicals,  and  thus  alter  its  color,  marks  and  appearance,  so  as  to 
make  it  sell  more  readily.  On  its  arrival  in  this  country,  the  coffee 
is  turned  out  of  its  original  packages,  shovelled  over,  marks  again 
changed,  and  bags  turned  inside  out,  the  coffee  sweated  or  artificially 
colored,  as  the  trade  may  desire,  or  the  necessity  of  removing  the 
traces  of  damage  require.  Java  skimmings  are  picked  over  by 
children,  the  black  beans  taken  out,  and  the  balance  re-marked  and 
sold  as  sound,  though  the  taint  remains  beyond  the  power  of  human 


THE    GROCERS    COMPANION.  7 

ingenuity  to  remove.  An  average  of  6,000  mats  of  this  coffee  is 
bought  monthly  and  distributed  through  the  markets  of  the  United 
States  to  the  Retail  Dealers  as  sound,  first-class  goods,  liio  coffee 
is  polished  by  machinery,  and  colored  in  different  shades — the  golden 
hue  being  imparted  by  turmeric  and  the  light  slate  color  by  the  use  of 
soap-stone. 

TEA — Is  extensively  adulterated  in  China  by  means  of  exhaust- 
ed tea  leaves  and  the  leaves  of  other  trees,  to  the  amount  of  many 
millions  of  pounds  annually.  China  clay,  fine  sand,  iron  filings,  etc., 
to  the  extent  of  from  20  to  40  per  cent,  are  used,  the  tests  for  which 
are  simple,  and  will  be  referred  to  under  its  proper  head. 

BREAD. — The  chief  adulterations  are  alum  or  sulphate  of  cop- 
per, to  give  solidity  to  the  gluten  of  damaged  or  inferior  flour  ;  chalk 
or  carbonate  of  soda  to  correct  the  acidity  of  sour  flour  ;  and  boiled 
rice  or  potatoes  to  enable  the  bread  to  carry  more  water,  and  to  swell 
its  bulk. 

FLOUR — And  other  farinaceous  substances  are  sophisticated  with 
phi.ster,  potato  starch,  and  similar  cheap  ingredients. 

BUTTER  AND  LAUD — Are  adulterated  by  the  introduction  of  in- 
ferior fats  and  the  addition  of  water,  salt  and  starch.  They  are 
readily  detected  by  inciting  the  butter  and  allowing  it  to  stand,  or  by 
its  peculiar  feel,  taste  or  odor. 

MUSTARD — Is  generally  diluted  with  flour  or  other  farinaceous 
matter,  anil  colored  with  turmeric  to  improve  its  appearance.  The 
genuine  material  contains  no  starch,  so  that  the  addition  of  starchy 
matter  may  readily  be  detected  by  the  iodine  test. 

SPICES — Generally  arc  largely  adulterated.  In  so-called  Ground 
Pepper*,  gypsum,  buckwheat  husks,  mustard  husks  and  starch  are 
frequently  used,  to  the  entire  exclusion  of  the  pepper.  Ginger  is 
adulterated  with  sago  meal,  turmeric  and  ground  rice.  In  Cayenne 
Pi'jijmr,  ferruginous  earths,  brick  dust,  vcrmillion  and  red  lead  are 
found.  Exhausted  tipices  are  commonly  re-ground,  for  the  purpose 
of  adulteration. 

Other  adulterations  practiced  to  improve  the  appearance  of  the 
article  may  be  thus  briefly  enumerated  :  —  The  addition  of  alum  and 
salts  of  copper  to  Bread  •  the  facing  of  IJ/ack  Tun  with  Frankfort 
black — and  of  Green  Tea  with  indigo,  Prussian  blue,  turmeric  and 
China  clay;  the  treatment  of  Pickles  and  Preserved  Fruits  with  a. 
salt  of  copper,  to  make  the  color  a  bright  green  ;  the  addition  of  fer- 
ruginous earths  to  Sauces,  Anchovies,  Potted  Meats  and  Prepara- 
tions of  Cocoa  ;  the  use  of  mineral  pigments,  such  as  green  ai'senite 
of  copper  and  chromatc  of  lead  in  Confectionery;  the  addition  of 
sulphuric  and  other  acids  to  Vinegar,  etc. 


8  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

i 

The  minor  adulterations  are  flour  and  terra  alba  to  baking  pow- 
ders ;  starch  and  flour  to  chocolates ;  gum  arabic  to  licorice  ;  com- 
mon plaster  to  cream  of  tartar  (sometimes  as  high  as  60  per  cent.)  ; 
starch  and  farinaceous  matters  to  indigo  ;  flour  to  powdered  sugar  ; 
syrups  made  from  corn  starch  and  sulphuric  acid ;  tapioca  made  from 
potatoes  ;  foreign  leaves  and  paper  mixed  with  tobacco  ;  liquors  of 
all  kinds  "  doctored"  in  numberless  ways  ;  maple  sugar  made  from 
muscovado ;  nutmegs  boiled  and  recoated ;  artificial  honey  and  jel- 
lies, etc.,  etc. 

ALCOHOL. — Alcohol  is  obtained  as  a  result  of  the  fermenta- 
tion of  sugar,  whether  in  the  starch  of  plants  or  vegetables,  or  from 
other  substances ;  it  is  also  extracted  by  distillation  from  spirituous 
liquors.  Alcohol  is  the  essential  element  in  all  intoxicating  drinks. 
Brandy  and  whisky  contaiu  about  50  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  Proof 
spirits  from  5;>  to  GO  per  cent.  It  cannot  be  brought  nearer  purity 
than  UO  per  cent.,  or  a  proportion  of  10  per  cent,  of  water.  Pure 
or  absolute  alcohol  is  a  colorless  fluid,  with  a  pungent,  agreeable 
taste  and  fragrant  odor.  It  is  highly  inflammable,  and  burns  with  a 
pale  blue  flame,  without  smoke.  The  action  of  alcohol  on  the  system 
is  that  of  a  powerful  and  dangerous  stimulant.  If  it  is  kept  in  large 
quantities  in  a  store,  it  necessitates  extra  insurance.  It  cannot  be 
sold  without  a  United  States  license,  which  costs  S25  per  aunum 
for  retailers  and  £200  for  wholesale  dealers  The  internal  revenue 
tax  is  90  cents  per  gallon.  It  is  applied  to  various  uses  by  manufac- 
turers, perfumers,  and  also  for  domestic  purposes,  and  has  a  large 
retail  demand  in  the  New  England  States. 

ALDEX  DRIED  FRUIT.  — This  term  is  applied  to  every 
kind  of  fruit  which  is  capable  of  being  dried,  such  as  grapes,  raisins, 
currants,  etc.,  and  has  been  submitted  to  the  process  known  as  the 
'•Alden  Process  of  Evaporation."  This  process  consists  in  extract- 
ing the  water  from  the  fruit,  without  impairing  its  flavor  or  freshness. 
The  fruit  is  dried  in  a  chamber  constructed  for  this  especial  purpose, 
and  the  water  extracted  by  means  of  hot  air  blasts.  All  kinds  of 
fruits  and  vegetables  are  dried  by  this  process,  aud  are  now  exten- 
sively sold  in  our  markets,  and  command  the  h'ghest  prices,  from  the 
exquisite  delicacy  and  superiority  of  their  flavor.  The  principal 
vegetables  are  also  prepared  in  this  manner,  and  a  bushel  of  potatoes 
weighing  GO  pounds,  when  dessicattd  by  this  process,  is  reduced  in 
weight  to  4i  pounds. 

ALLSPICE-.— Allspice  is  also  known  as  Pimento  and  Jamaica 
Pepper,  and  is  the  dried  fruit  of  a  small  West  India  tree  called  the 
Pimeuto,  originally  indigenous  to  the  Carribee  Islands,  aud  extensively 
cultivated  in  Jamaica  and  the  East  Indies.  '1  he  fruit  is  about  the 
si/e  of  a  small  pea,  and  is  gathered  wheu  green.  It  is  called  Allspice 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION  9 

from  its  supposed  resemblance  in  flavor  to  a  mixture  of  cinnamon, 
nutmeg  and  cloves,  and  is  rarely  adulterated  on  account  of  its  cheap- 
ness. The  green  berries  are  dried  by  spreading  on  a  terrace  exposed 
to  the  sun  for  about  seven  days,  when  they  become  a  reddish  brown. 
Their  taste  is  warm,  aromatic  and  slightly  astringent.  The  berries 
are  used  as  a  spice  in  cooking,  and  as  a  carminative  in  medicine. 
The  annual  consumption  in  the  United  States  averages  about 
20,000,000  pounds,  of  the  value  of  $90,000,  exclusive  of  duty. 

ALMONDS. — Of  these  there  are  two  kinds,  sweet  and  bitter. 
The  sweet  almonds  consist  of  three  varieties  —  the  Jordan,  Valencia 
and  Brittle-shelled  ;  the  first-named  being  the  most  highly  esteemed. 
The  Jordan  almond  is  imported  from  Malaga,  and  is  longer,  narrow- 
er, more  pointed,  and  more  highly  prized  than  those  imported  from 
Valencia.  The  tree  from  which  almonds  are  obtained  is  a  native  of 
Barbara,  and  is  cultivated  throughout  Southern  Europe,  Syria, 
Persia,  and  Northern  Africa,  though  the  chief  supply  is  from  Spain 
and  the  South  of  France.  The  kernels  of  the  sweet  almond  are  used, 
both  in  the  green  and  ripe  state,  as  an  article  of  dessert,  and  are 
extensively  employed  in  confectionery,  cooking,  perfumes,  and  for 
medicinal  purposes.  When  young  and  green,  they  are  preserved  in 
sugar,  like  green  apricots.  They  also  furnish  the  almond  oil  of  com- 
merce, which  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  olive  oil.  The  Bitter 
almond  is  a  most  active  poison,  and  destructive  of  animal  life,  from 
the  large  quantity  of  hydrocyanic  or  Prussic  acid  which  it  contains. 
Hence  the  great  danger  which  arises  from  its  use,  and  the  great  cau- 
tion necessary,  when  it  is  employed  (as  it  is  occasionally)  in  flavoring 
confectionery.  The  consumption  of  sweet  almonds  in  the  United 
States  reaches  $500,000  in  value  per  annum. 

ALUML — Alum  is  a  mineral,  of  a  tonic  and  astringent  charac- 
ter, and  is  used,  commercially,  not  only  in  its  crude  state,  but  also 
in  various  preparations,  as  an  article  of  domestic  consumption,  and 
is  commonly  known  as  the  sulphate  of  ammonia,  in  which  form  it  is 
kept  in  almost  every  grocer's  warehouse,  and  eagerly  sought  for  by 
the  public.  It  is  frequently  used  by  bakers  to  whiten  their  bread. 
There  is  a  large  quantity  of  alum  present  in  many  of  the  cheaper 
classes  of  baking  powders  ;  consequently,  the  incomplete  neutralization 
of  this  astringent,  by  the  other  elements,  is  productive  of  considera- 
ble annoyance  and  injury,  It  is  very  useful  in  the  preparation  of 
skins,  and  in  'fixing  the  color  in  colored  prints,  etc.,  and  therefore 
invaluable  in  the  laundry,  hide  dressing,  and  other  preservative 
processes.  But  in  all  matters  relating  to  articles  of  food,  or  food 
preparation,  its  use  should  be  controlled  by  the  greatest  skill  and  dis- 
crimination. 


10  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

AM  MOM  A. — Ammonia  is  a  chemical  compound  in  the  form  of 
a  transparent,  colorless,  and  extremely  pungent  gas.  It  is  chiefly- 
derived  from  a  crystalline  substance,  originally  obtained  from  the 
distillation  of  bituminous  coal  in  making  gas,  and  also  from  refuse 
animal  matter.  The  ammonia  of  commerce  is  sold  both  in  the 
crystal  and  liquid  form,  and  is  used  for  cleansing  woollen  and  other 
fabrics,  metals,  etc.,  and  also  as  a  disinfectant.  It  combines  with 
acids  to  form  salts.  A  solution  of  this  gas  in  water  is  used  in  medi- 
cine, under  the  name  of  hartshorn.  Smelling' salts  is  the  carbonate 
of  ammonia,  Ammonia,  in  combination  with  sulphuric  acid,  forms 
a  white  salt,  and  is  sold  in  drug  stores  as  sulphate  of  ammonia. 
There  is  also  another  form,  obtainable  at  most  retail  grocery  stores, 
called  "water  of  ammonia,"  extensively  used  for  laundry  purposes, 
to  take  stains  out  of  linen. 

ANCHOYIES. — The  anchovy  is  a  small  fish  of  the  herring 
family,  about  six  inches  long,  somewhat  thicker  than  a  sardine,  and 
found  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  on  the  Atlantic  shores  of  Europe, 
and  also  ou  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  in  the  United  States. 
The  true  anchovy1  may  be  distinguished  by  its  round  bark,  though 
sardines  are  frequently  sold  as  anchovies,  from  their  comparative 
cheapness.  When  intended  for  exportation,  they  are  salted  and 
packed  in  small  barrels.  This  fish  is  largely  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  pastes  and  sauces,  and  is  quite  a  favorite  relish  at  United 
States  breakfast  tables.  Anchovies  should  always  be  chosen  small, 
fresh  pickled,  and  the  color  white  on  the  outside  and  red  in. 

ANISE-SEED. — Anise-seed  is  the  fruit  of  pimpinella  "/>i.<icm, 
originally  from  Egypt  and  the  Levant,  but  now  grown  all  over 
Europe.  The  seeds  have  a  fragrant  odor,  and  a  sweet,  warm,  aro- 
matic taste.  They  are  used  in  medicine,  and  also  to  flavor  liquors, 
and  as  a  condiment.  They  contain  a  volatile  oil,  which  is  obtained 
by  distillation,  and  frequently  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  ses-ds.  The 
"star  anise  oil"  of  commerce  is  a  native  of  Eastern  A.-ia,  and  is 
imported  from  Anam  and  China.  The  annual  importations  to  the 
United  States  is  about  100,000  pounds. 

ANNATTO. — This  is  a  red  dyeing  drug  produced  from  the  red 
pulp  coA-ering  the  seeds  of  the  Bixa  orellana,  a  shrub  growing  wild 
in  South  America,  and  cultivated  in  the  West  Indies.  The  process 
of  manufacture  may  be  thus  described: — The  pulp  and  seeds  are 
bruised  together  in  wooden  vessels,  and  hot  water  poured  ou  them  ; 
they  are  then  left  to  soak  for  a  few  days  (say  a  week),  when  they  are 
pressed  through  a  close  sieve  to  separate  the  seeds.  The  pulp  is  then 
left  to  ferment  for  another  week,  when  the  water  is  gently  poured  off, 
and  the  solid  portion  left  to  dry  in  the  shade.  When  it  has  assumed 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  11 

the  consistency  of  a  paste,  it  is  considered  ready  for  the  market.  It 
is  chiefly  used  in  coloring  butter  and  cheese.  It  does  not  in  the  least 
affect  their  quality,  and  is  used  in  the  creameries  and  factories  instead 
of  the  yolk  of  an  egg,  which  is  often  added  to  the  farm  dairy  pro- 
duce to  give  it  the  rich  color  demanded  by  the  consumer.  It  is  also 
frequently  used  to  color  chocolates.  The  annual  consumption  in  the 
United  States  reaches  330,000  pounds. 

ANNEAR  SAUCE. — This  deservedly  popular  table  sauce  was 
invented,  manufactured  and  introduced  to  the  trade  by  John  Annear  & 
Co.,  of  Philadelphia  and  New  York,  and  was  formerly  known  as- 
Pennsylvania  Sauce.  Its  piquancy,  tonic  and  appetizing  properties, 
and  the  freedom  from  reaction  on  the  breath  or  the  gastric  juices, 
renders  it  a  peculiarly  pleasing,  pungent  and  popular  condiment,  and 
an  excellent  relish  for  cold  meats,  sandwiches,  fried  fish,  oysters 
and  soups.  It  prevents  nausea  and  promotes  digestion. 

APPLES. — This  well-known  fruit  has  been  vastly  improved  by 
cultivation  from  its  original  wild  state,  which  is  still  seen  in  the 
Crab  apple,  the  parent  of  all  the  American  varieties.  There  are 
Tip  wards  of  two  hundred  varieties  under  cultivation,  and  this  large 
number  is  rapidly  increasing.  There  are  three  classes  of  apple, 
which  are  determined  by  the  time  of  ripening,  and  vary  considerably 
in  taste  and  appearance.  The  Harvest  or  June  apple,  small,  yellow 
and  sweetish,  is  the  first  to  make  its  appearance  among  the  summer 
apples;  then  comes  the  Highlow  (handsome  and  fine-flavored,)  the 
Sourbough,  Porter  and  the  Gravenstine.  These  are  followed  by  the 
Fall  apples,  the  best  being  the  Maiden  Blush,  the  Belle-flower,  the 
Holland  Pippin,  Fall  Pippin  and  Strawberry  Pippin — the  two  first- 
named  being  the  favorites.  The  leading  varieties  in  the  Winter 
apples  are  the  Greenings  (the  best  and  most  popular  family  apple, 
being  alike  suitable  for  eating,  cooking  or  preserving),  the  Baldwin 
(a  good-looking  but  inferior  apple,  of  dry,  insipid  flavor),  the  North- 
ern Spy  and  Spitzeriberg  (finely-flavored  eating  apples),  the  Seek-no-* 
further;  the  Gill  Flower,  commonly  called  the  Sheep's  Nose,  from 
its  peculiar  pointed  shape  (having  a  pleasant,  sweetish  flavor),  the 
Swaar  and  the  Russet ;  the  last  being  the  latest  comer  and  the  hardi- 
est of  all  the  varieties.  The  Newtown  or  Golden  Pippin  is  raised 
chiefly  for  export  to  Europe,  where  it  is  mu.h  esteemed.  When 
sliced  and  dried,  the  apple  is  an  important  article  of  commerce  — the 
annual  exportation  from  this  eouutry  being  nearly  1,000,000  bushels 
of  green  apples,  and  0,000,000  pounds  of  dried  apples. 

APRICOTS. — This  delicious  fruit  is  the  produce  of  a  small 
tree,  a  native  of  Armenia,  but  cultivated  both  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica. The  fruit  is  of  a  yellow  color,  the  exposed  side  having  a  reddish 
tinge,  and  resembling,  in  many  of  its  qualities,  the  peach.  In  East- 


12  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

«rn  countries  it  is  used  as  an  article  of  food,  and  is  dried  in  the  same 
way  as  figs.  It  is  frequently  propagated  by  grafting  on  the  peach, 
plum,  or  wild  cherry  tree.  Canned  apricots  are  brought  to  our 
markets  from  California. 

ARROW-BOOT.— This  product  is  a  starch  obtained  from  the 
root  of  a  West  India  plant,  and  is  also  largely  cultivated  in  Georgia, 
Florida  and  the  Brazils.  The  name  is  said  to  have  been  obtained 
from  the  fact  that  the  Indians  used  the  fresh  roots  to  cure  the  wounds 
made  by  poisoned  arrows.  It  is  much  more  probable,  however,  that 
the  name  was  derived  from  Ara,  the  old  Indian  name  of  the  plant. 
Maranta,  Canna,  and  Curcuma  are  the  best  qualities.  Potato-starch, 
•which  is  largely  used  to  adulterate  arrow-root,  is  frequently  sold  as 
English  arrow-root.  In  Cayenne,  the  natives  eat  the  root  roasted 
for  the  cure  of  intermittent  fevers.  It  is  from  the  root-stocks  of  this 
plant  that  the  finest  Bermuda  or  West  India  arrow-root  is  obtained. 
Prepared  arrow-root  is  almost  pure  starch,  but,  should  any  potato- 
starch  be  present,  it  can  be  readily  detected  by  the  microscope.  It  is 
used  as  a  simple  food  for  invalids  and  children,  and  is  usually  dis- 
solved in  boiling  water,  and  flavored  to  suit  the  taste.  Upwards  of 
1,250,000  pounds  of  arrow-root  is  annually  consumed  in  the  United 
States. 

ARTICHOKE — As  it  appears  in  the  market,  is  the  fleshy  or 
pulpy  part  of  the  flower  of  the  artichoke  plant,  taken  before  the 
flower  expands.  In  this  country,  it  is  usually  boiled  before  eating, 
when  it  is  used  as  a  salad ;  in  Europe,  it  is  frequently  eaten  raw, 
with  pepper  and  salt.  Its  season  is  short,  from  August  to  Septem- 
ber, and  is  an  entirely  different  plant  from  the  Jerusalem  artichoke 
undermentioned.  It  is  a  species  of  the  thistle  family. 

JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE.  —  This  plant  is  a  native  of  Brazil, 
flowering  in  this  country  in  August  and  September,  and  bearing  fruit 
in  October.  It  is  a  kind  of  sunflower  in  appearance,  and  is  culti- 
vated for  the  fleshy  tubers  at  its  root,  which  resemble  potatoes  in 
shape,  have  a  sweetish  taste  when  boiled,  and  are  more  watery  and 
less  nourishing  than  the  potato.  They  are,  hoAvever,  quite  palatable 
x  when  properly  prepared,  and  make  excellent  soup ;  are  usually 
pickled  and  eaten  as  a  condiment  with  vinegar.  They  are  also  used 
in  the  feeding  of  stock. 

ASPARAGUS. — This  vegetable  delicacy  is  a  native  of  Europe, 
though  it  thrives  freely  in  the  United  States ;  is  grown  in  rich,  sandy 
soil,  in  meadows,  and  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers.  It  has  beeu 
much  improved  by  cultivation,  as  in  its  wild  state  it  grows  only  about 
a  foot  high,  of  the  thickness  of  a  goose-quill.  In  its  cultivated  state 
it  attains  a  height  of  three  or  four  feet  ;  the  plant,  when  only  a  few 


TEE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  1$ 

days  old.  is  cut  as  it  sprouts  from  the  ground,  a  few  inches  above  the 
soil,  tied  in  bunches  and  brought  to  the  market.  It  is  a  favorite- 
Spring  vegetable,  and  was  considered  a  choice  dainty  by  the  ancient 
Romans.  The  seeds  are  roasted  and  used  as  coffee  in  Europe  at 
the  present  day.  A  kind  of  fermented  beverage  is  made  from  the 
berries. 

AXLE  GrREASE. — It  is  well-known  to  all  who  use  vehicles- 
or  machinery  of  any  description,  that  simple  oil  or  grease  is  utterly 
ineffective  for  the  purposes  of  lubrication.  A  prepared  grease  is 
therefore  necessary  to  answer  all  the  requirements,  and  of  these 
there  arc  several  descriptions  in  the  market.  Axle-greases  are 
usually  prepared  from  the  pitchy  remains  of  fatty  acids,  petroleum 
or  lard  oil.  Some  patent  axle-greases  are  composed  of  tallow,  tar, 
lime-water,  flax-seed,  flour,  Venetian  red,  and  rosin  ;  others  are- 
made  up  of  black  oil,  hard  tallow,  wood  ashes,  white  lime,  salt, 
sulphur  and  black  lead.  But  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  increase  its- 
durability  and  improve  its  appearance,  that  tar  or  graphite  should  be 
one  of  its  chief  ingredients. 

AVOIRDUPOIS.  — This  is  a  system  of  weights  used  for 
weighing  everything,  except  medicines,  precious  stones,  gold  and  sil- 
ver.—  (See  tables).  The  name  is  derived  from  the  French  words 
avoir  du  pois — meaning,  to  have  a  fixed  measure. 

BAGS  (Paper).  —  Formerly  the  making  of  paper  bags  was 
one  of  the  chief  duties  of  the  grocer's  younger  assistants,  but  now 
they  are  made  so  cheaply  by  machinery  that  patent  bags  have  been 
brought  into  general  use.  Many  manufacturers,  desirous  of  adver- 
tising their  goods,  print  paper  bags  and  supply  them  to  the  trade  at 
nominal  prices,  or  give  them  with  every  sale  of  their  own  goods. 
But  every  good  grocer  would  prefer  to  advertise  his  own  store  in  that 
way  rather  than  make  the  trifling  saving.  Satchel-bottom  bags  open 
out  square  at  the  bottom  are  a  decided  improvement  on  the  old 
form. 

BANANAS. — The  banana  tree  is  a  species  of  palm,  a  native 
of  the  West  Indies,  but  now  grown  in  every  warm  climate.  It  is 
the  most  prolific  vegetable  known — from  thirty  to  forty  plants  grow- 
ing in  a  space  forty  feet  square.  The  upper  flowers  are  unproductive, 
the  lower  ones  rapidly  changing  into  an  oblong-shaped  fruit  resem- 
bling a  cucumber  in  size  and  shape.  They  grow  iu  bunches,  some  of 
them  containing  as  many  as  one  hundred  and  sixty.  The  fruit  is 
filled  witli  a  sweet,  nutritious,  custard-like  juice,  and  is  one  of  the 
chief  articles  of  food  for  the  inhabitants  of  tropical  countries.  It  is 
preserved  with  sugar  and  with  vinegar  ;  is  used  as  bread,  and  when 
pressed  and  fermented,  yields  a  spirituous  drink  resembling  cider. 
The  sap  also  makes  an  excellent  wine.  In  flavor,  the  fruit  resembles- 


14  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

tho  plantain-tree,  but  is  mueli  more  agreeable  and  delicate.  It  needs 
but  little  cultivation — £^1  that  is  necessary  being  to  weed  the  space 
surrounding  the  trees  from  suckers.  The  fruit  is  generally  brought 
into  our  markets  in  a  partly  green  state,  and  ripened  in  dark,  well- 
heated  rooms.  The  trees  bear  fruit  every  six  months,  and  continue 
to  do  so  for  many  years.  They  are  easily  frozen,  so  that  in  cold 
weather  they  are  packed  very  carefully,  before  shipping,  to  prevent 
them  from  spoiling. 

BAKING  POWDERS  AND  BREAD  PREPARATIONS. 

There  are  a  large  number  of  baking  powders  and  other  preparations 
used  in  the  making  of  fancy  bread  and  pastry  as  substitutes  for  yeast. 
They  are  all  necessarily  compounds  of  an  acid  and  an  alkali  which 
generate  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  are  usually  made  from  cream  of 
tartar  and  carbonate  of  soda  or  ammonia,  in  various  quantities, 
according  to  the  skill  and  scientific  knowledge  of  the  person  com- 
pounding. These  component  parts  should  always,  of  course,  be  used 
in  the  exact  proportion  necessary  to  neutralize  each  other,  or  else  the 
preparation  cannot  possibly  be  successful  or  effective.  More  or  less 
flour  is  always  mixed  with  these  ingredients  ;  but  in  the  cheaper 
powders  the  flour  largely  predominates,  and  renders  them  compara- 
tively worthless.  There  should  be  about  85£  per  cent,  of  acid  and  al- 
kaline combination  to  9£  per  cent,  of  flour,  with  a  trace  of  chlorine  and 
sulphuric  acid  in  a  good  or  standard  baking  powder.  Cheap  powders 
should  always  be  avoided  by  the  grocer,  for  the  reason  that  they  con- 
tain by  far  too  great  a  proportion  of  starch  or  flour.  TJie  great 
advantage  of  these  powders  over  yeast  is  the  rapidity  with  which 
it  forme  the  gas,  thus  enabling  the  baking  to  be  done  very  much 
•quicker. 

YEAST  POWDERS. — In  all  preparations  of  yeast,  the  essential 
•element  is  the  yeast  plant,  a  microscopical  species  of  fungi.  Ger- 
man or  compressed  yeast  (introduced  into  the  United  States  about 
twenty  years  ago),  is  generally  used — the  brewer's  or  fresh  yeast 
being  now  virtually  discontinued.  The  vitality  of  dry  yeast  is  speed- 
ily destroyed  by  the  action  of  heat,  cold,  chemical  re-agents,  falls, 
blows,  bruises,  or  rough  mechanical  injuries. 

BARLEY. — Barley  is  one  of  the  most  useful  of  all  our  cereal 
products.  In  one  or  other  of  its  forms,  it  is  used  as  a  preservative 
of  health,  as  a  cure  in  sickness,  and  as  a  restorative  to  the  invalid. 
It  has  been  cultivated  from  the  remotest  antiquity,  as  an  article  of 
diet.  In  early  Greek  and  Roman  writings,  and  in  the  Bible  itself, 
frequent  mention  of  it  is  found,  not  only  as  a  food,  but  as  a  beverage 
— the  liquid  extract  (beer) ,  being  a  popular  beverage  among  the 
Greeks,  Egyptians  and  ancient  Germans.  It  is  used  and  cultivated 
at  the  present  time,  in  all  temperate  climates,  as  an  article  of  food ; 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  15 

though  in  this  country  the  grain  is  raised  almost  exclusively  for  the 
use  of  breweries,  Barley  meal  is  used  ia  the  north  of  Europe  for 
bread.  There  are  several  other  purposes,  however,  to  which  this 
nutritious  and  useful  grain  is  adapted,  viz.  : 

POT  BAUI.KY — Or  starch  barley,  which  is  prepared  by  simply 
removing  the  outer  husk. 

PLAUL  BARLEY — (specially  adapted  for  the  consumption  of  in- 
valids, and  fur  use  in  soups,  stews,  etc.),  is  prepared  by  removing 
both  the  inner  and  outer  husks,  cutting  off  a  portion  of  the  berry, 
and  rounding  and  polishing  it  through  a  pair  of  peculiarly  construct- 
ed millstones — the  kernels  having  been  previously  steamed  and  dried. 

PATENT  BARLEY — Is  a  flour  obtained  by  grinding  the  pearl 
barley,  after  /V.V  preparation  in  that  form,  and  is  devoid  of  the  acrid 
taste  which  is  present  in  the  barley  meal,  by  grinding  the  seed  with 
its  husks. 

BARLEY  SUGAR — Is  a  confection  formed  by  a  mixture  of  sugar 
with  a  decoction  of  barley. 

BARREL. — The  barrel  of  flour  should  contain  196  pounds; 
pork  or  beef.  200  pounds  (the  standard  of  pork  has  been  reduced  to 
196  pounds)  ;  pickled  beef,  306  pounds;  hams  (in  barrels),  226 
pounds ;  butter,  224  pounds ;  soft  soap,  256  pounds ;  wines  or 
liquids,  32£  gallons  ;  tar,  26J  gallons.  [See  tables.] 

BARTER. — Two  or  three  centuries  since  (and  in  our  country, 
even  at  the  commencement  of  the  present  century) ,  Barter,  or  ex- 
change in  kind,  was  an  accepted  method  of  business  transaction  for 
all  necessaries  of  life.  It  is  indeed  still  very  common,  where  money 
and  banking  facilities  are  scarce,  as  in  the  far  west  and  north-west, 
and  the  more  recently  settled  districts  of  our  northern  and  western 
States  and  Territories.  In  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  country 
dealers  are  frequently  obliged  to  take  eggs,  butter,  and  other  dairy 
and  farm  produce  in  payment  for  sugar,  starch,  soap,  etc.,  and  when 
they  can  dispose  of  the  produce  quickly  and  at  a  fair  price  (and  are 
not  themselves  paying  too  much  for  it) ,  the  result  to  the  local  grocer 
will  doubtless  prove  satisfactory.  But  there  is  a  great  risk  in  the 
matter  which  is  frequently  productive  of  serious  results.  The  pro- 
duce may  sell  slowly,  and  so  tie  up  capital ;  it  may  deteriorate  iu 
quality  or  condition  ;  and  again,  the  immense  amount  of  extra  hu>or, 
time  and  attention  necessary  to  carry  out  such  a  system  will  more 
than  eat  up  all  the  profits.  Besides,  barter  leads  to  a  competition  in 
buying  which  is  far  worse  than  all  the  cutting  to  which  the  local 
tradesman  is  subject  in  his  ordinary  business  ;  for  the  buyer  who 
competes  on  produce,  does  not  know  the  price  at  which  the  goods 
will  sell  in  the  city,  and  often  finds  he  cannot  realize  his  outlay  after 


16  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

all  the  charges  are  paid.  No  dealer  can  do  two  transactions  for  one 
profit ;  hut  few  are  capable  of  managing  a  double  business,  and.  when 
goods  are  sold  below  their  value  or  bought  above  it,  it  is  well  to  let 
others  control  the  market.  The  only  principle  which  the  retail  deal- 
er can  thrive  on  is,  cash  in  buying  and  selling,  as  tar  as  practicable; 
credit,  with  great  caution  ;  barter  only  in  rare  and  exceptional  cases. 

BEANS. — These  are  the  leading  vegetables  in  our  market  gar- 
dens, and  are  extensively  cultivated  throughout  the  country,  being 
universally  used  as  food,  both  in  the  green  and  ripe  state.  In  the 
green  state,  they  are  known  as  string  beans,  and  the  pod  and  seed 
are  both  eaten.  The  Lima  and  Wax  beau  are  deservedly  popular 
species,  and  are  favorites  at  all  tables.  When  ripe,  they  are  shelled, 
and  are  then  known  as  dry  beans,  in  which  condition  they  can  be 
kept  for  an  indefinite  period.  Lima  and  string  beans  are  canned  in 
large  quantities,  and  the  former,  after  drying,  are  often  soaked  in 
water,  and  sold  in  that  state  in  our  winter  markets  as  fresh  beans. 
In  the  early  spring,  string  beans  are  largely  shipped  from  the  South 
to  the  Northern  markets,  where  they  find  a  ready  sale.  In  the  dry 
state,  beans  form  an  important  article  in  the  produce  markets.  The 
White  Marrowfat  is  the  variety  generally  cultivated  to  sell  in  a  dry 
state.  Besides  the  bush  bean  we  have  the  pole  bean,  which  grows 
'to  the  height  of  ten  feet,  and  requires  training.  The  Lima  is,  how- 
ever, the  best  known,  and  was  originally  brought  from  India.  The 
descriptions  enjoying  the  "run"  of  the  market  are  the  Northern 
Pea  Bean,  Yellow-eyes,  Red  Kidneys  and  German  Beans,  of  each 
of  which  there  are  two  or  three  grades  of  qualities. 

BEESWAX. — Beeswax  is  the  material  secreted  by  the  bees, 
and  of  which  their  cells  are  manufactured.  The  wax,  separated 
from  the  honey,  is  a  valuable  article  of  commerce.  The  honey  being 
separated  from  the  comb  by  pressure,  or  by  means  of  a  mechanical 
contrivance  called  the  honey  extractor,  the  residual  wax  is  heated 
with  water  and  stirred  until  it  melts.  It  is  then  strained  through  a 
hair  sieve  into  a  vessel  of  cold  water,  where  it  solidifies  into  a  thick 
yellowish  cake.  It  is  rendered  white  by  the  action  of  the  sun  and 
moisture.  Purified  beeswax  is  tasteless,  colorless  and  odorless,  in- 
soluble in  water,  and  enters  largely  into  the  manufacture  of  candles 
and  tapers,  besides  being  used  for  domestic  purposes,  and  by  artists 
for  modelling,  etc.  It  is  frequently  adulterated  with  parafline  and 
spermaceti.  - 

BEET. — This  is  one  of  our  most  extensively  cultivated  vegeta- 
bles, and  is  used  for  food  by  both  man  and  beast.  It  is  large,  and 
extremely  rich  in  sugar.  In  France  and  Germany,  large  quantities 
of  sugar  are  manufactured  from  it.  and  known  as  Beet  Root  Sugar. 
The  beet  sugar  manufacture  is  also  rapidly  increasing  in  America. 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  17 

Beet  root  sugar  is  similar  to  that  obtained  from  the  sugar  cane,  but 
is  inferior  in  its  sweetening  power.  The  boiled  roots  are  a  common 
article  of  diet  in  all  civilized  countries ;  and  the  young  leaves 
(especially  those  of  the  white  beet),  are  boiled  and  eaten  in  the  same 
manner  as  greens  or  spinach. 

BENZINE. — Benzine  is  a  volatile  oil  prepared  from  petroleum, 
used  for  the  removal  of  grease  spots  from  AVOOC!  and  woollen  cloth, 
and  as  a  cleansing  agent  on  type  and  other  metallic  surfaces^  It 
removes  the  stain  by  dissolving  the  grease  or  fat'y  substances.  It 
will  also  dissolve  caoutchoue,  gutta-percha,  wax,  camphor,  etc. 
It  is  very  inflammable,  and  any  grocer  keeping  more  than  five  gal- 
lons upon  the  premises  must  effect  a  special  insurance. 

BIRD  FOOD,  ETC.— There  are  a  large  number  of  articles 
included  under  this  term,  which  should  be  found  in  every  grocery 
store  calculated  to  supply  local  wants,  especially  in  country  towns 
and  rural  districts,  at  a  distance  from  cities.  It  comprises  Smyrna 
and  Sicily  Canary  Seed,  Russian  Hemp  Seed,  English  and  German 
Rape  Seed,  Unhulled  Rice  or  Paddy,  Millet,  Maw  Seed,  Cuttle  Fish 
Bone,  Washed  Silver  Gravel,  Mocking-bird  Food,  Clover  Seed,  Kurd 
Grass,  Orchard  Grass,  Blue  Grass,  Red  Top  Seed,  Flax  Seed,  Yel- 
low Mustard  Seed,  Hungarian  Seed,  and  Excelsior  Bird  Food,  the 
prices  and  the  names  of  dealers  in  which  may  be  found  in  the  weekly 
Price  Lists  ot  the  NEW  ENGLAND  GROCER.  The  more  important 
of  these  articles  will  be  described  in  their  alphabetical  order. 

BLACKBERRY.  —  This  well-known  fruit  is  sold  in  large 
quantities  in  the  early  summer  markets.  It  is  made  into  jelly  and 
jam,  and  from  it  is  made  Blackberry  cordial,  a  pleasant  astringent 
wine,  used  in  bowel  complaints,  and  for  invalids.  There  are  a  great 
many  varieties,  all  natives  of  the  United  States.  The  common  black- 
berry grows  abundantly  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  along  the 
borders  of  fields  and  in  woods.  In  some  of  the  Southern  Stages, 
large  quantities  of  the  berries  are  dried  and  sent  to  market.  They 
are  also  canned  to  some  extent,  but  the  fruit  is  rather  insipid.  The 
fruit  of  the  blackberry  is  not  a  true  berry,  but  a  collection  of  drupes 
or  stone  fruits  on  a  fleshy  basis.  It  grows  on  a  bushy  bramble  all 
through  woods  and  fields,  and  is  much  improved  by  cultivation. 

DEWBERRY — Is  a  fruit  of  the  same  species,  but  rather  smaller, 
rounder  and  more  juicy.  It  grows  on  a  low,  creeping  bramble,  and 
ripens  several  weeks  before  the  blackberry. 

BLACKBERRY  BRANDY — Is  the  boiled  juice  of  the  fruit,  with 
sufficient  brandy  in  it  to  prevent  fermentation.  It  is  much  used  in 
all  summer  complaints. 

BLACKING. — A  preparation  used  for  the  blacking  of  boots, 


18  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION, 

shoes,  etc.  The  principal  ingredients  are  bone  black,  sweet  oil,  vin- 
egar or  sour  beer,  sugar  or  molasses,  and  a  little  sulphuric  acid. 
There  is  also  a  higher  grade  of  blacking,  in  which  wax  is  used 
instead  of  molasses,  which  produces  a  softer  and  more  durable  polish, 
and  excludes  moisture  better  than  the  ordinary  blacking.  Blacking 
is  sold  both  in  the  paste  and  liquid  form.  Many  varieties  are  in  use, 
and  differ  in  the  proportion  of  the  various  ingredients  used.  Any 
blacking  which  will  retain  its  oily  consistence  of  a  paste  wheu  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  is  superior  to  that  which  dries  and  becomes  harsh. 
An  excess  of  blacking  is  injurious  to  the  leather  on  account  of  the 
acid  present.  For  the  production  of  a  polish,  a  fine,  soft  brush  is 
necessary,  as  a  coarse  one  will  scratch  the  polish.  The  last  few 
years,  a  superior  description  of  shoe  polish  (of  which  there  are  many 
manufactures),  is  sold  in  ornamental  glass  bottles  by  every  shoe 
store  and  grocery  store  in  the  country. 

BLUEING. — An  article  used  in  washing  clothes  to  avoid  their 
yellowish  tint,  and  give  them  a  whiter  color.  Indigo  is  the  original 
form,  but  Prussian  blue  dissolved  in  water  by  means  of  oxalic  acid  is 
generally  used  in  the  manufacture  of  liquid  blue.  Spanish  Float 
Indigo  is  a  high  grade  of  indigo  in  lumps.  Blueing  is  sold  in  many 
forms,  especially  since  the  introduction  of  the  aniline  dyes,  which  are 
largely  used  for  the  same  purpose.  Liquid  blue  is  very  apt  to  freeze, 
and  should  therefore  be  kept  in  a  warm  place  to  prevent  the  bursting 
of  the  bottles.  It  is  sometimes  prepared  from  the  acid  solution  of 
indigo,  and  neutralized  by  the  addition  of  carbonate  of  soda.  It  is 
sold  in  both  liquid  and  paste  forms,  as  well  as  in  the  powder. 

BOLOGNA  SAUSAGE.— An  article  of  food  which  takes  its 
name  from  the  town  of  Bologna,  in  Italy,  where  it  was  first  pro- 
duced. It  is  properly  made  from  bacon,  veal  and  pork  suet,  chopped 
very  fine  and  packed  into  a  skin.  The  common  imitations,  made 
and  sold  so  extensively  in  this  country,  are  without  the  slightest  sus- 
picion of  veal,  and  consist  mainly  of  tough  and  unsaleable  beef  taken 
from  cattle  too  thin  to  cut  up  for  market. 

BONDS  OF  SURETY.  —  Business,  in  these  days,  cannot 
possibly  be  done  too  cautiously.  Every  retail  tradesman  should 
therefore  require  from  his  clerks  and  cashiers,  book-keepers  and 
managers,  bonds  of  surety ;  by  which  means  many  difficulties  would 
be  avoided.  [For  Business  Forms,  see  Appendix.] 

BORAX. — This  is  a  combination  of  boracic  acid  and  soda,  and 
was  formerly  found  abundantly  on  the  shores  of  lakes  in  Thibet, 
Persia  and  India  ;  in  South  America,  and  on  the  lakes  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  Of  late  years,  however,  the  large  deposits  in  South-eastern 
California  and  Nevada  are  the  chief  sources  of  our  supply.  Borax 


THE    GROCERS    COMPANION.  19 

Is  a  white  salt,  of  a  sweetish  alkaline  taste.  The  important  practi- 
cal uses  to  which  borax  is  put  are  almost  innumerable.  It  is  used  iu 
soldering,  as  it  dissolves  any  oxide  that  may  be  on  the  surface  of  iron 
or  other  metal,  thus  presenting  a  clean  surface  which  enables  the 
solder  to  take  effect ;  it  is  used  as  a  substitute  for.  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of,  soap  ;  it  replaces  washing  soda  in  the  kitchen  ;  is  used  as 
a  preservative  agent  for  butter  and  other  food  products  ;  is  the  chief 
element  in  shampooing  liquids  for  cleansing  the  hair  ;  is  a  powerful 
ingredient  in  many  medical  preparations,  and  is  destructive  to  moth?. 
ants,  cockroaches  and  other  vermin. 

BORAX  SOAP — Is  a  manufacture  the  main  element  in  which  is 
borax,  and  is  the  oldest  and  best  known  of  our  medicated  soaps. 
There  are,  of  course,  many  imitations,  some  of  which  are  merely 
white  soaps,  with  only  just  sufficient  borax  to  justify  the  title. 

BRANDY. — A  liquor  obtained  by  distilling  the  fermented  juice 
of  the  grape.  In  Europe,  very  little  brandy  is  made  from  the  pure 
grape,  most  of  it  being  distilled  from  various  wines.  In  the  United 
States,  it  is  distilled  from  t*hc  fermented  juice  of  other  fruits,  such  as 
the  pear,  apple,  cherry  and  peach ;  and  also  from  rectified  whisky 
made  from  Indian  corn,  flavored  by  the  addition  of  acetic  ether,  oil 
of  cognac,  tannin  and  burnt  sugar  (to  give  it  a  color).  Large  quan- 
tities of  inferior  whisky  are  exported  to  France  from  this  country, 
and  returned,  after  manipulation,  to  our  ports  as  a  sort  of  fictitious 
foreign  brandy.  In  France,  rum,  beet-root  spirits,  and  spirits  from 
potatoes,  are  largely  used  in  its  manufacture.  Brandies  are  distin- 
guished as  pale  and  dark.  When  first  distilled,  the  liquor  is  color- 
less, the  pale  amber  tint  it  acquires  being  derived  from  the  wood  of 
the  cask  in  which  it  is  kept.  New  brandies  are  made  to  resemble 
old  brandy  by  the  addition  of  burnt  sugar  or  other  coloring  matter. 
The  best  brandies  are  those  obtained  from  the  regions  of  Cognac  and 
Armagnac,  districts  of  France  ;  but  a  large  proportion  of  those  brands 

sold  under  that  name  are  mere  imitations. 

• 

BRAWN. — A  preparation  of  meat  made  from  the  head  and 
belly-piece  of  a  young  pig,  with  the  addition  of  ox-feet  to  make  it 
gelatinous.  It  has  long  been  a  well-known  dish  in  England,  and 
has  come  into  this  country  as  a  new  article  in  canned  meats. 

BRAZIL  NUTS. — These  grow  on  large  trees  in  Brazil  and 
Guiana  ;  a  number  of  them  laid  over  each  other  in  a  regular  manner 
in  a  large  seed  vessel  (shaped  like  two  bowls  closed  together)  as 
large  as  a  man's  head,  and  so  hard  that  a  blow  from  a  sledge  ham- 
mer is  required  to  break  it.  The  seeds  (or  nuts  as  they  are  called) , 
are  wrinkled  and  of  triangular  shape,  with  a  hard  shell  and  pure 
white  kernel,  of  agreeable  taste.  They  yield  a  large  quantity  of  oil, 
which  is  used  in  South  America  for  illuminating  purposes.  They  are 


20  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

also  called  Cream  nuts  and  Para  nuts.     The  annual  consumption  in 
the  United  States  amounts  to  about  3,000,000  pounds. 

BREAD. — Bread  made  from  wheaten  flour  forms  the  chief 
article  of  food  throughout  the  civilised  world.  There  is  also  /«'//« 
bread,  made  from  rye  flour,  which  is  darker  and  coarser  than  wheaten 
bread,  and  used  principally  by  the  German  population  ;  Corn  breml , 
chiefly  used  in  the  Southern  States,  and  eaten  by  the  negroes  in  the 
form  of  hoe  cake,  etc.  ;  Oraham  bread  or  Brown  bread,  which  in 
Kugland  and  this  country  is  made  from  unbolted  wheat  flour,  or  bran 
and  flour  mixed,  is  considered  very  healthy ;  and  New  Enyland  or 
Jioxton  Brown  Bread,  made  from  a  mixture  of  crushed  rye,  mo- 
lasses and  other  ingredients,  forming  a  coarse,  dark  brown  bread. 
Alum  is  sometimes  added  to  flour,  in  the  making  of  white  bread. 
to  increase  its  weight,  as  the  alum  retains  a  large  proportion  of 
water ;  a  mixture  of  potato  starch  and  boiled  rice  is  sometimes  ad- 
ded for  the  same  purpose.  Alum  may  be  detected  in  bread  by  dipping 
a  piece  in  a  weak  solution  of  logwood,  when  a  claret  color  will  be 
produced  if  alum  is  present. 

BRETZEL. — A  hard,  brittle  roll  of  bread}  frequently  mis- 
spelt Pretzel,  twisted  into  the  shape  of  the  letter  B,  and  commonly 
used  by  Germans  in  this  country  and  in  Germany,  who  eat  it  with 
their  beer. 

BRICK  TEA.- — A  term  applied  to  tea  shaped,  by  heavy  pres- 
sure, into  cakes,  divided  by  indented  lines  into  small  squares,  Avhich 
are  easily  separated,  and  which  expand  when  immersed  in  boiling 
water.  It  is  claimed  that  tea  in  this  form  is  compact,  specially 
adapted  for  shipping  and  handling,  and  preserves  its  aroma  more 
effectually.  It  has  only  recently  been  introduced  into  this  country, 
but  is  not  looked  upon  favorably,  because  of  the  readiness  with  which 
it  could  be  adulterated,  and  the  difficulty  of  detection. 

BROMA. — A  nutritious,  agreeable  and  favorite  preparation  for 
the  breakfast  table,  made  from  the  cocoa  beans.  Its  chief  feature  is 
in  the  preservation  of  the  aroma  and  soothing  qualities  of  the  cocoa 
bean,  Avithout  the  excess  of  fatty  deposit  found  in  some  of  the  prepa- 
rations of  cocoa. 

BROOMS. — These  useful  domestic  utensils  are  made  of  various 
materials ;  but  most  commonly  of  broom-corn  straw,  a  species  of 
sorghum,  introduced  from  Africa.  The  seeds  arc  combed  out  by 
machinery,  and  the  handles  vary  from  the  cheapest  to  the  most  ex- 
pensive woods.  For  their  quality,  the  brooms  depend  not  alone  upon 
their  material,  but  on  the  way  in  which  they  arj  put  together.  They 
should  be  securely  fastened  and  wrapped  with  from  two  to  six  ties  of 
twine  or  wire  —  the  more  the  better.  The  corn  should  be  clean  and 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPAXIOX.  21 

tough.  A  broom  has  been  recently  patented,  which  lias  a  detached 
handle,  affording  great  facility  fur  packing  and  shipping.  There  are 
also  patent  frames  or  ?>room  racks,  for  the  convenience  of  retail 
dealers  in  displaying  the  brooms  in  their  store.- — a  great  improvement 
on  the  old-fashioned  method  of  stacking  them  in  old  flour  barrels. 

BRUSHES. — Brushes  for  domestic  use  are  made  from  coarse 
hair,  hogs'  bristles,  strips  of  whalebone  or  .short  wire,  and  fastened 
to  a  handle,  either  in  one  bunch  or  in  separate  tufts.  The  smallest 
brushes  (and  pencils)  are  made  from  the  hair  of  the  camel,  badger, 
squirrel,  goat,  etc.  Hogs'  bristles  are,  however,  the  principal  ma- 
terial used  ;  the  white  and  better  kinds  being  employed  for  hair,  tooth, 
clother;  and  hat  brushes,  and  also  for  the  better  class  of  paiut  brushes. 
The  bristles  are  first  selected  according  to  color,  and  then  arranged 
as  to  size,  by  passing  them  through  combs  of  various  widths.  The 
paint  brush,  which  is  the  simplest  form  of  brush,  is  made  by  insert- 
ing full-length  bristles  between  two  projecting  prongs  in  the  handle, 
and  securing  them  by  a  wrapping  of  twine,  which  is  afterwards  pro- 
tected by  a  coating  of  glue  and  red  lead.  Hair  brooms  and  dusters 
are  made  by  inserting  tufts  of  bristles  into  a  stock  or  head  previously 
drilled  with  holes  for  their  reception,  the  bores  being  triangular  in 
shape.  The  root  ends  of  the  hair  tufts  arc  dipped  into  melted  pitch, 
then  bound  with  thread,  and  again  dipped,  and  then  inserted  in  their 
respective  holes  with  a  screw-like  motion.  This  description  of  brush 
is  usually  made  with  full-length  bristles  ;  but  where  stiffness  and 
strength  is  required,  as  in  shoe,  scrubbing  and  similar  brushes,  the 
tuft  of  bristles  is  doubled,  so  as  to  present  both  ends  outward,  and 
are  then  cut  off  square  and  even.  The  holes  are  drilled  through  a 
pattern  board  to  insure  uniformity.  The  tufts  are  fastened  in  their 
places  by  a  loop  of  brass  wire.  The  drawing  wires  are  then  covered 
Avith  veneering,  to  strengthen  and  improve  the  appearance  of  the 
brush  ;  and  when  it  has  been  finished  off,  sand-papered  and  varnished, 
the  article  is  ready  for  sale.  Brushes  are  also  made  by  machinery. 
Woodlmry's  brush-making  machine  will  make  an  ordinary  scrub- 
brush  in  one  minute  ;  and  as  in  these  the  holes  do  not  pass  through 
the  wood,  no  back  is  required. 

BUCKWHEAT. — This  cereal  is  an  annual  plant,  with  a  pur- 
ple stern  from  two  to  four  feet  hi'jh.  It  was  first  grown  in  Asia,  and 
afterwards  introduced  into  Spain  by  the  Moors,  but  is  now  largely 
cultivated  in  the  temperate  regions  of  Europe  and  America.  The 
plant  is  comparatively  hardy,  grows  well  on  poor  soil,  and  matures 
rapidly.  It  is  sometimes  raised  for  ploughing  under  as  a  manure, 
and  for  its  flowers  as  a  bee  pasture,  though  the  honey  is  inferior ; 
but  its  principal  use  is  in  producing  flour  from  the  seeds  from  which, 
in  Germany  and  Poland,  a  popular  gruel  is  made  ;  and  in  the  pro- 
vincial parts  of  France,  it  is  made  into  a  dark  bread  and 


22  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

The  grain  is  of  a  triangular  shape,  and  produces  a  dark  flour  of 
rather  rank  and  bitter  taste,  which  in  this  country  and  England  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  breakfast  cakes  or  buckwheat  cakes,  as 
they  are  commonly  called.  It  forms  an  extremely  nutritious  diet  for 
winter  consumption,  but  if  used  to  excess,  is  apt  to  cause  eruptions 
on  the  skin.  The  demand  springs  up  very  quickly  with  the  first 
frosts  of  winter,  and  ends  with  the  approach  of  warm  weather  in  the 
spring.  It  is  mixed  with  middlings  to  diminish  the  strong  taste  of 
the  buckwheat,  to  make  the  dough  lighter  and  sweeter,  and  to  make 
the  cakes  brown  more  readily  on  the  griddle. 

BUSHEL. — A  measure  containing  four  pecks,  or  thirty-two 
quarts.  The  legal  bushel  of  the  United  States  contains  2150  42-100 
cubic  inches  of  distilled  water,  weighing  about  77£  pounds.  The 
legal  measure  of  various  articles  of  merchandise  is  determined  by 
weight.  [See  Tables  of  Weights  and  Measures.] 

BUTTER— Was  used  by  the  Hebrews  as  a  food  in  the  Biblical 
times;  but  by  the  early  Greeks  and  Romans  only  as  an  ointment; 
aad  even  at  the  present  day,  it  is  rarely  used  in  the  countries  along 
the  Mediterranean,  being  sold  chiefly  by  the  apothecaries.  The  fac- 
tory system  of  cheese-making  —  and  its  immediate  outgrowth,  the 
creamery  system  of  butter-making  —  have  very  greatly  improved  the 
quality  of  the  butter  made  in  the  United  States.  It  is  a  very  sensi- 
tive article,  and  absorbs  any  odor  or  flavor  with  which  it  comes  in 
contact,  and  must,  therefore,  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  chamber,  where 
it  will  be  free  from  all  such  damage.  The  taste  and  smell  of  rancid 
butter  is  due  to  the  butyric  acid  which  forms  as  it  grows  older.  As 
will  be  seen  in  the  weekly  Price  Lists  of  the  NEW  ENGLAND  GROCER. 
the  lump  butter  leads  the  market,  and  always  commands  a  good  sah;, 
after  which  creamery,  dairy,  factory,  dairy  packed,  and  baker's  but- 
ter (as  it  is  called),  take  their  places  in  public  estimation,  in  the  order 
we  have  named.  There  is  no  article  of  more  vital  importance  to  the 
retail  grocer  than  good  butter ;  but  the  great  difficulty  is  in  maintain- 
ing a  standard  grade  in  home-made,  as  it  is  only  in  the  factory-made 
article  that  perfect  uniformity  can  be  ensured.  Butter  is  the  fatty 
substance  extracted  from  milk ;  the  milk  used  in  this  country  being 
solely  that  of  the  cow.  The  composition  of  the  milk  and  cream,  and 
consequently  the  quality  and  flavor  of  the  butter,  depends  upon  and 
varies  with  the  breed,  age  and  feed  of  the  cow — all  of  which  circum- 
stances must  be  taken  into  consideration  in  the  making  of  butter. 
When  milk  is  allowed  to  stand,  the  globules  of  fat  rise  to  the  surface 
and  form  a  layer  of  cream.  The  component  parts  of  cream  may  be 
thus  tabulated : — Butter,  33.43  parts  in  100;  caseine,  2.62;  sugar, 
1.56;  salts,  0.72;  water,  61.67.  To  procure  the  cream  for  the 
manufacture  of  butter,  the  milk  is  placed  in  a  cellar,  the  temperature 
of  which  is  from  55°  to  60°  Fr.  The  cream  having  risen  (the  opera- 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  23 

tion  taking  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-six  hours) ,  it  is  skimmed  off 
and  put  into  a  stone  jar  until  sufficient  is  accumulated  to  perform  the 
process  of  churning.  Special  care  should  be  taken  not  to  keep  the 
cream  too  long,  as  it  impairs  the  quality  of  the  butter  and  gives  it  a 
cheesy  taste.  The  process  of  churning  consists  in  the  violent  agita- 
tion of  the  cream  by  the  action  of  a  dasher,  which  causes  the  fat 
globules  to  unite,  and  finally  to  entirely  separate  from  the  watery 
residue,  which  is  called  butter-milk.  No  other  form  of  churn  has 
yet  been  invented  superior  to  the  old-fashioned  dasher-churn.  Tlie 
operation  of  churning  occupies  from  forty-five  minutes  to  one  hour. 
If  the  butter  comes  sooner,  it  is  apt  to  be  frothy ;  and  if  much 
longer,  it  acquires  a  very  disagreeable  flavor.  The  butter  is  then 
washed  in  cold  water,  thoroughly  worked  or  kneaded  to  expel  the 
water,  and  made  into  rolls  or  moulded  into  prints,  when  required  for 
immediate  use.  If  it  is  to  be  kept  for  some  time,  it  is  packed  in 
stone  jars  or  wooden  firkins  (the  latter  being  preferable  for  shipping) , 
and  containing  56  or  100  pounds  of  butter  in  each  vessel.  About 
one  ounce  of  salt  (the  purest  made,  either  Ashton  or  Syracuse,  made 
expressly  for  dairy  use) ,  should  be  \ised  to  every  pound  so  packed  ; 
sugar  and  saltpetre  are  added  to  increase  its  keeping  qualities.  The 
leading  butter  factories  adopt  the  following  rule:  —  For  every  22 
pounds  of  butter,  1G  ounces  of  salt,  one  teaspoonful  of  saltpetre,  and 
a  tablespoonful  of  the  best  powdered  white  sugar.  Butter  mado 
from  the  milk  of  cows  fed  on  rich  pasture  is  of  a  deep  yellow  color ; 
consequently  poor  and  inferior  butters  are  frequently  colored  with 
annatto,  tumcric  or  carrot  juice.  The  average  quality  of  manu- 
factured butter  contains  83  per  cent,  of  pure  fatty  matter,  1'2£  per 
cent,  water,  3i  per  cent,  common  salt,  1-60  per  cent,  sugar  of  milk, 
and  1-40  per  cent,  of  caseine  and  albumen.  The  ordinary  way  of 
adulterating  butter  is  by  adding  a  large  quantity  of  salt,  so  that  it 
may  absorb  an  excessive  amount  of  water,  aud  also  increase  the 
weight. 

ARTIFICIAL  BUTTER — Or  oleomargarine,  will  be  considered  in 
its  proper  place. 

BUTTERNUT. —  This  article  of  dessert  is  the  fruit  of  the 
jwjluus  cinerea,  a  beautiful  tree  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  in 
height.  The  fruit  is  oblong  and  clammy.  The  nut  is  thickly  furrowed 
and  sharply  ridged,  and  about  two  inches  in  length.  The  kernel  is 
sweet  and  pleasant,  but  from  its  abundance  of  oil,  soon  becomes 
rancid  unless  \vell  dried.  The  half  green  fruit,  gathered  in  June, 
and  with  its  down  removed,  is  used  for  making  pickles. 

CABBAGE. — This  descriptive  name  includes  a  large  number 
of  vegetables,  differing  not  only  in  appearace  but  in  quality,  such  as 
Cauliflower,  Kale,  Brocoli,  Bruncls,  Sprouts,  etc.  Of  the  common 
cabbage,  there  are  numerous  varieties  differing  but  slightly,  and 


21  TILE    CROCK  1C S    COMPANIOK. 

generally  grouped  iu  two  classes,  viz.,  the  <;'</•///  and  htle  cabbage, 
according  to  their  time  of  ripening.  Of  early  cabbage,  the  best  are 
the  Early  York,  Jersey,  "Wakefield  and  Early  Winuingstadt.  The 
principal  late  cabbages  are  the  Drumhead,  Flat  Dutch,  Masou, 
Drumhead  Savoy  and  lied  Dutch.  The  cabbage  is  a  biennial  plant  ; 
during  the  first  season  perfecting  its  growth,  and  in  the  second  the 
seeds  are  produced,  and  the  whole  plant  perishes.  As  an  article  of 
food  cabbage  is  not  very  nutritious,  but  eaten  cold  in  the  form  of  a 
salid  it  is  very  wholesome.  Large  quantities  are  consumed  by  the 
Germans  as  Sauer  Krauts  [which  see] .  The  solid  part  of  the  cab- 
bage-head is  often  cut  into  long  shreds  and  eaten  raw,  with  season- 
ing or  mustard  dressing,  as  '•'•cold  slaw."  Red  cabbage  is  generally 
used  for  pickling. 

CADDY. — A  small  chest  or  box  for  keeping  tea.  Many  gro- 
cers re-pack  their  teas  in  such  caddies,  which  are  made  in  various 
small  sizes,  in  imitation  of  Chinese  chests,  and  are  shipped  in  nests 
(one  inside  the  other) . 

CAMPHOR. — This  is  a  concrete,  volatile  product,  obtained 
from  different  plants,  especially  those  of  the  Laurel  fnmilv.  The 
greater  portion  of  the  camphor  of  commerce  is  obtained  from  the 
Camphor  laurel  or  Camphor  tree  ;  a  native  of  China,  Japan,  For- 
mosa, and  later  introduced  into  the  West  Indies  and  Java.  The  tree 
grows  to  a  large  size,  has  evergreen  leaves,  yellowish  white  tlower.- 
in  panicles  or  tufs,  and  a  fruit  somewhat  resembling  a  black  currant. 
All  parts  of  the  tree  possesses  the  odor  of  camphor,  and  yield  this 
article  when  cut  into  small  pieces  and  distilled.  Borneo  or  Sumatra 
camphor,  known  as  Hard  camphor,  is  obtained  from  a  tree  native  to 
those  places.  It  is  found  in  its  fissures  and  cavities  in  a  solid  state. 
and  can  only  be  got  at  by  felling  the  tree  and  picking  out  the  frag- 
ments of  the  gum  in  small  pieces.  Each  tree  yields  on  the  average 
about  twenty  pounds  weight  of  camphor.  It  is  of  much  better  qual- 
ity than  the  common  camphor,  for  which  reason  it  is  seldom  seen  in 
Europe  and  America,  but  is  reserved  for  home  consumption.  The 
same  tree  produces,  when  young,  a  pale  yellow  liquid  known  as  oil 
of  camphor,  which  is  generally  supposed  to  be  the  camphor  in  its  in- 
cipient or  immature  condition.  It  is  considered  extremely  valuable 
as  an  external  remedy  for  rheumatism.  Camphor  has  a  somewhat 
bitter  and  pungent  taste;  a  strong,  pungent  and  penetrating  odor 
which  is  extremely  noxious  to  troublesome  insects  ;  and  it  is  much 
used  in  preserving  specimens  in  natural  history,  clothing,  furs,  etc. 
"When  exposed  to  the  air  it  rapidly  vaporizes  :  it  is  highly  inflamma- 
ble, burning  with  considerable  smoke  and  flame.  It  is  used  in  medi- 
cine both  internally  and  externally  as  a  stimulant  ;  in  small  doses 
a*  an  anodyne  and  antispasmodic  ;  in  large  doses  it  is  a  narcotic  poi- 
son. Its  alcoholic  solution,  and  the  various  liniments  of  which  it 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  2.3 

forms  a  conspicuous  part,  are  much  used  as  external  applications  for 
spasms,  bruises,  chilblains  and  chronic  rheumatism.  The  impor- 
tations of  crude  camphor  into  the  United  States  aggregate  nearly 
1,250,000  pounds  annually. 

CANARY-SEED.— The  seed  of  the  Canary  grass,  which 
grows  in  the  Canary  Islands,  has  been  naturalized  in  Europe  and 
Great  Britain  where  it  grows  abundantly,  and  is  more  sparingly  cul- 
tivated in  the  United  States.  The  seed  is  used  as  the  food  of  cage- 
birds.  In  the  Canary  Islands  it  is  used  as  an  article  of  food  by  the 
natives,  as  it  contains  a  large  quantity  of  farina  which  is  very  nutri- 
tious. It  is  largely  mixed  with  rape  and  other  seeds  to  cheapen  it, 
but  the  unadulterated  article  is  much  preferable  for  the  purposes  de- 
signed. A  fine  flour  id  made  from  this  seed  which  is  employed  as 
dressing  in  fine  cotton  goods,  and  for  finishing  of  silken  fabrics.  The 
importations  of  Canary-seed  amount  to  more  than  50,000  bushels 
annually. 

CANDLES. — Before  the  introduction  of  gas  and  petroleum  oil 
into  common  use,  candles  were  the  common  household  lights.  They 
are  still  used  to  a  very  considerable  extent,  because  they  are  the  safest 
and  most  convenient  form  of  portable  light  They  are  made  of  tal- 
low, paraffme,  wax  and  spermaceti,  and  are  sometimes  colored  with 
aniline  dyes.  They  were  formerly  prepared  chiefly  from  tallow  and 
spermaceti,  by  the  process  known  as  dipping.  The  wicks  were  first 
dipped  into  the  warm  liquid  tallow  until  saturated,  and  then  lifted 
and  hung  upon  frames  until  cold,  when  they  were  again  dipped,  and 
the  process  continued  until  the  desired  size  was  reached.  This  pro- 
cess has  been  replaced  by  that  of  moulding,  in  which  the  melt- 
ed material  is  poured  into  moulds  of  glass,  tin  or  metal,  in  the 
Centres  of  which  the  wicks  have  previously  been  stretched.  The  tal- 
loiv  candles  are  the  most  common  form,  as  they  are  more  easily  and 
cheaply  made,  but  they  burn  away  so  much  more  i-apidly,  that  other 
ibrms  of  candles  are  really  less  expensive.  Adamantine  candles  are 
made  of  tallow  from  which  the  glycerine  has  been  extracted  by  chem- 
ical process,  leaving  only  the  pure  stearine.  These  are  very  excellent 
candles,  and  great  favorites  with  the  public.  Parafjine  candles  have 
<>f  late  advanced  considerably  in  popular  favor.  It  makes  a  clear 
candle,  resembling  wax,  and  gives  a  very  good,  pleasant  light.  A 
little  stearine  is  usually  mixed  with  it,  as  the  pure  paraffine  is  apt  to 
droop  or  bend  when  warm.  Spermaceti  candles  are  made  from  sper- 
maceti, which  is  formed  in  the  cavities  of  the  head  of  the  sperm 
whale,  and  are  the  best  candles  in  common  use.  \Vax  candles  are 
much  more  expensive,  but  not  much  better  than  other  grades  of  can- 
dies. They  are  difficult  to  mould,  on  account  of  the  wax  adhering  to 
the  inside  of  the  moulds  ;  they  are  consequently  made  by  dipping,  and 
by  pouring  the  wax  over  the  wicks,  until  a  sufficient  thickness  is  ob- 


26  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

tained,  and  then  forming  the  candle  by  rolling  between  marble  or 
hard  wood  slabs.  They  are  also  sometimes  formed  by  drawing  them 
through  a  machine  constructed  for  the  purpose,  in  the  same  way  as 
wire  is  drawn.  It  has,  however,  recently  been  found  that  wax  can- 
dles may  be  successfully  moulded  by  the  use  of  glass  moulds,  Avhich, 
when  the  candles  are  to  be  withdrawn,  are  dipped  for  a  moment  in 
warm  water,  which  causes  the  glass  to  expand  sufficiently  to  loosen 
the  candles  and  allow  of  their  being  readily  extracted.  The  charac- 
ter of  the  wick  is  of  great  importance  in  the  manufacture  of  candles, 
and  much  care  is  needed  to  adjust  the  size  of  the  wick  to  the  weight 
of  the  candle,  and  to  determine  the  character  of  wick  which  shall 
give  the  best  results  with  each  variety  of  candle  made.  An  impor- 
tant discovery  has  recently  been  made  by  De  Milly,  that  by  soaking 
the  wicks  in  a  weak  solution  of  boracic  acid,  the  formation  of  a  mush- 
room of  unconsumed  wick  might  be  entirely  prevented.  The  wicks 
are  soaked  for  two  or  three  hours  in  a  bath,  holding  in  solution  one 
and  a  half  per  cent,  of  boracic  acid,  and  one  and  a  half  per  cent,  of  am- 
moniac sulphate,  after  which  the  wick  is  dried  and  singed  in  a  lamp 
flame,  to  remove  the  little  filaments  of  adhering  cotton.  This  discov- 
ery has  been  of  great  importance  to  the  candle-making  industry,  in- 
creasing, as  it  does  to  an  immense  amount,  the  value  of  the  candles 
and  the  extent  to  which  they  are  used.  Hotel  candles  are  merely  the 
ordinary  tallow  candles,  of  about  half  the  usual  size. 

CANNED  GOODS.  —  The  preservation  of  fruits,  vegetables, 
fish  and  meats,  by  hermetically  sealing  them  in  cans,  is  by  no  means 
a  new  process  ;  but  the  developments  and  improvements  which  have 
transformed  that  process  into  a  vast  and  vitally  important  industry, 
is  comparatively  recent.  During  the  Mexican  war,  it  received  its 
first  impetus  as  a  bona  fide  business  in  the  United  States,  and  during 
the  Rebellion  it  expanded  into  a  leading  industry.  To-day  the  list  of 
articles  preserved  by  canning  are  almost  countless,  and  includes  fish, 
meat,  poultry,  chowders,  plum  puddings,  sauces,  and  fruits  and  veg- 
etables of  all  kinds.  Custom  has  done  away  with  most  of  the  preju- 
dice arising  from  fear  of  poisoning,  but  there  is  great  room  for  care 
in  the  canning  of  acid  fruits  or  vegetables.  Some  goods  are  now 
packed  in  tin  cans  coated  with  paraffine  wax,  and  the  custom  of 
soldering  on  the  outside  only  is  now  very  general.  Most  articles, 
when  properly  canned,  are  kept  in  as  good  a  condition  as  when  fresh, 
and  in  the  case  of  lobster  and  crab  meat,  the  advantage  is  very 
marked  on  the  side  of  the  canned  article,  as  the  lobsters  and  crabs 
which  are  carried  to  the  cities  and  crawl  around  in  the  sun  for  hours, 
are  generally  half-dead  before  they  reach  the  consumer ;  and,  as 
Paddy  says — "  they  have  to  be  killed  to  save  their  lives!" — while 
the  tinned  meat,  being  prepared  in  the  neighborhood  of  where  they 
are  caught,  is  firm,  fresh  and  in  full  flavor.  The  immense  consump- 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  27 

tion  of  canned  salmon  all  over  the  world  shows  how  well  fish  can  be 
packed. 

Domestic  canning  has  become  an  indispensable  part  of  house- 
hold economy ;  but  the  canning  for  market  has  now  grown  to> 
be  so  absolutely  essential  to  the  existence  of  the  Produce,  Pro- 
vision and  Grocery  sections  of  American  commerce,  that  without  itr 
her  trade  in  these  productions,  both  for  export  and  home  consump- 
tion, would  be  speedily  annihilated.  In  canning  for  market,  the 
division  of  labor  is  so  nicely  adjusted,  and  the  employment  of  ma- 
chinery so  extensive  and  complete,  that  the  cost  of  the  products  and 
the  time  and  labor  expended,  is  brought  to  its  lowest  minimum.. 
These  factories  generally  put  up  a  large  variety  of  the  legion  of  arti- 
cles destined  to  undergo  the  canning  process,  so  that  operations  can 
be  carried  on  from  years'  end  to  years'  end.  In  the  prosecution  of 
the  process,  the  entire  exclusion  of  air  from  the  cans  is  the  chief 
object,  and  all  operations  tend  to  that  end.  Of  course  a  very  large 
number  of  people  are  employed,  and  every  operation  has  to  be  con- 
ducted with  the  utmost  rapidity.  A  brief  description  of  the  process 
in  the  canning  of  fruit  and  sweet  corn  may  prove  interesting  to  our 
readers  :  In  many  of  the  peach  canning  factories  for  instance,  the 
fruit  is  piled  on  the  upper  floor,  thrown  into  hoppers,  and  conducted 
to  tables  on  the  lower  floor,  the  cans  being  filled  by  placing  them 
under  the  hopper  and  pressing  the  fruit  in  with  the  fingers.  The  cans 
are  then  passed  to  another  table,  where  syrup  —  about  one  pound  of 
sugar  to  a  gallon  of  water  —  is  filled  in,  and  time  given  to  allow  the 
air  between  the  peaches  to  escape.  The  cans  are  then  cleaned  from 
the  syrup  spilt  on  the  sides  and  passed  to  the  tinmen,  who  put  on  the 
circular  covers,  rapidly  soldering  them  down.  Each  can  has  a  small 
hole  on  the  top  to  allow  the  air  to  escape,  and  after  the  cover  is  oa 
this  hole  is  soldered  up.  The  cans  are  then  placed  in  a  rack  and 
lowered  into  a  tank  of  water,  which  can  be  heated  by  steam.  As  the 
temperature  increases,  the  imperfect  cans  are  detected  by  the  escape 
of  air,  and  are  taken  out.  The  water  is  then  raised  to  a  boiling 
point,  which  is  continued  for  half  an  hour,  more  or  less,  according  t*> 
the  size  and  kind  of  the  peaches.  After  being  boiled,  the  cans  are 
allowed  to  cool  slightly,  and  are  then  vented  by  opening  the  prick- 
hole  in  the  cap,  which  allows  the  steam  to  escape  ;  and  immediately 
closing  it  again,  when  the  cans  have  cooled.  If  all  right,  the  head  will 
snap  in  by  a  slight  pressure,  showing  that  there  is  a  good  vacuum. 
The  cans  are  then  placed  in  the  store-room,  and  labels  put  on  them 
when  sold. 

In  canning  tomatoes  they  are  first  slightly  scalded,  so  as  to 
remove  the  skin,  and  when  peeled  are  thrown  into  pans  to  allow  some 
of  the  watery  portion  to  drain  off.  They  are  then  packed  in  cans, 
and  a  little  syrup  added,  made  of  water,  sugar  and  salt,  and  are 
subsequently  sealed,  tested  and  boiled  as  before  described. 


28  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

The  canning  of  corn  is  more  difficult,  though  similar  in  opera- 
tion. The  corn  is  boiled,  cut  from  the  cob,  put  into  cans,  and  the 
spaces  being  filled  with  a  little  syrup  of  sugar  and  salt,  the  can  is 
soldered  tight.  The  cans  are  then  boiled  in  a  solution  of  chloride  of 
calcium  or  refuse  from  salt-works.  This  solution  has  a  much  higher 
boiling  point  than  water.  After  being  boiled  for  several  hours,  the 
cans  are  taken  out  and  vented,  again  soldered  up  and  returned  to 
the  bath  for  another  boiling  of  several  hours'  duration,  when  they 
are  taken  out  and  the  process  is  complete. 

Canned  soups  are  put  up  by  many  of  the  most  prominent 
packers. 

The  canning  of  shrimps  is  a  very  delicate  process,  but  it  has 
been  brought  to  perfection. 

The  New  England  •  dish  of  baked  beans  is  now  very  extensively 
canned. 

Brawn  [see  article  thereon] ,  has  been  quite  generally  introduced 
to  the  trade,  and  meets  with  considerable  sale  to  saloon-keepers. 

The  multitude  of  packers,  and  the  great  variation  in  the  quality 
of  goods  packed,  have  caused  a  very  general  demand  for  a  guarantee 
of  one  year  on  all  canned  goods.  The  subject  has  been  persistently 
agitated  in  the  NEW  ENGLAND  GROCER  and  the  grocery  press  gen- 
erally, and  the  leading  packers  of  the  country  have  agreed  to  guaran- 
tee their  goods.  Defective  canned  goods  are  known  as 

SWELLS — which,  on  account  of  their  growing  frequency  of  oc- 
currence, are  becoming  of  grave  importance  to  those  who  handle 
canned  goods,  and  we  would  warn  grocers  when  they  are  making 
purchases  not  to  omit  to  demand  guarantees  against  the  goods  be- 
coming unsound.  The  "Swells"  are  usually  caused  by  imperfect  cook- 
ing of  the  fruit  in  packing,  so  that  the  oxygen  is  not  entirely  expel- 
led. Sometimes,  also,  they  are  caused  by  an  almost  imperceptible 
leak  in  the  can  which  admits  the  oxygen.  Whenever  the  grocer  finds 
fi  "Swell"  among  his  cans,  he  should  take  it  for  granted  that  it  is 
unsound,  and  return  it  at  once  to  the  wholesale  dealer  without  open- 
ing, who,  in  his  turn,  can  demand  a  rebate  from  the  packer. 

The  chief  items  in  Canned  goods,  now  having  the  "run  of  the 
markets,"  comprise  :  Corned  Beef,  Ox-Tongues,  Potted  Tongue,  Pot- 
ted Beef,  Lunch  Tongues,  Turkey  and  Tongue,  Boneless  Turkey. 
Boneless  Chicken,  Roast  Beef,  Boiled  Beef,  Ox-Tail  Soup,  Chicken 
Soup,  Ham,  English  Brawn,  Green  Turtle  Soup,  Pigs'  Feet.  Tender- 
loin, Potted  Ox-Tongue,  Potted  Ham,  Tripe,  Kidney  Soup,  Minced 
Collops,  Minced  Steak,  Clipped  Dried  Beef,  Mock  Turtle  Soup,  Im- 
proved Smoked  Dried  Beef  (Boston  brand),  Rolled  Ox-Tongue,  Blue 
Cross  Pickles,  Queen  Olives,  Baby  Olives,  Potted  Turkey,  Potted 
Chicken  ;  Walnut,  Tomato  and  Mushroom  Ketchups  ;  Capers  in  three 
grades ;  Apples,  Apricots,  Asparagus,  Blueberries.  Blackberries ; 
Beans — Lima,  String,  Champion  and  Baker ;  Sweet  Corn,  Cherries, 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  20 

Clams,  Lobster,  Crab,  Mackerel,  Oysters,  Plums  ;  Peas — Marrows, 
Early  June  and  Sifted ;  Pears,  Peaches,  Pineapples,  Quince,  Succo- 
tash, Salmon,  Tomatoes,  Raspberries,  Strawberries,  Sardines,  Pump- 
kins, Squash,  Standard  and  Extra  Yellow  Peaches,  Standard  Bart- 
lett  Pears,  Dessert  Fruits  (assorted),  and  Horse  Radish  Flour. 

CAPERS— Are  flower-buds  of  the  Caper  bush  which  grows  in 
countries  along  the  Mediterrean  Sea.  They  arc  put  up  as  pickles, 
the  smaller  and  better  ones  being  packed  in  bottles,  and  the  coarser 
ones  in  casks,  and  ai*e  extensively  used  as  ingredients  of  sauces  for 
boiled  meats.  The  buds  of  one  or  two  plants  are  sometimes  substi- 
tuted for  capers.  Copper  is  sometimes  added  to  improve  their  color, 
although  it  renders  them  poisonous.  Its  presence  may  be  detected 
by  inserting  a  polished  iron  rod,  the  surface  of  the  rod  becoming 
coated  with  copper  if  it  is  present. 

CARAMELS. — A  species  of  chocolate  candy,  which  is  soft 
when  fresh,  but  soon  hardens.  They  are  very  nicely  put  up  for  the- 
trade  in  tin  boxes. 

CARAWAY  SEEDS.— The  seeds  of  the  Caraway  plant  are 
cultivated  in  Europe  and  America.  They  are  highly  aromatic,  used 
as  flavoring  in  cooking  and  confectionery,  and  are  employed  in  the 
preparation  of  perfumes,  scented  soups  and  liquors. 

CARBOLIC  ACID. — This  is  a  sold  substance  obtained  from 
the  products  of  Coal  Tar  by  distillation.  It  is  a  powerful  disin- 
fecting agent,  and,  in  its  pure  state,  its  use  is  entirely  confined  to  the 
use  or  authorization  of  the  medical  faculty,  being  employed  by  them 
in  various  ways  as  a  remedial  agency.  Mixed  with  other  substan- 
ces so  that  it  may  not  be  improperly  used,  it  has  beome,  under  the 
title  of  Impure  Carbolic  Acid,  one  of  the  most  effective  and  indis- 
pensable purifiers  in  the  domestic  circle.  It  can  only  be  used  exter- 
nally, in  the  dressing  of  wounds,  in  the  dispersion  and  correction  of 
noxious  efliuvia,  or  in  arresting  the  process  of  decomposition  in  de- 
composing vegetable  and  animal  matter.  Various  preparations  of 
this  disinfectant  are,  or  should  be,  found  in  all  the  grocery  establish- 
ments of  our  towns  and  cities. 

CARROTS. — The  common  Carrot  is  a  biennial  plant,  a  native 
of  the  East,  but  now  naturalized  in  this  country.  It  is  cultivated 
for  its  root,  which  is  used  in  soups  and  stews,  and  also  boiled  and 
eaten  as  a  vegetable.  The  juice  is  sometimes  emqloyed  on  the  farm 
to  give  color  to  butter.  A  French  variety  of  carrot,  quite  small,  is 
put  up  in  cans  and  jars,  and,  to  some  extent,  imported  into  this  coun- 
try. Carrots  are  also  raised  as  food  for  animals. 

CASAVA  OR  MANDIOC.      [Sec  Tapioca.] 


30  THE    GROCE1CS    COMPANION. 

CASSIA  BARK — Sometimes  called  China  cinnamon,  is  a 
tree  growing  from  forty  to  fifty  feet  high,  and  cultivated  in  China  and 
other  Eastern  countries,  as  well  as  in  Brazil.  The  China  cassia  is 
the  best  of  all  the  cassias.  The  bark  is  very  similar  to  cinnamon, 
both  in  appearance  and  quality,  but  is  thicker,  coarser,  and  less  sweet 
*md  delicate  in  flavor.  As  it  is  cheaper  than  cinnamon,  it  is  largely 
used  in  its  place,  and  also  to  adulterate  the  true  article.  Cassia  bnrk 
is  further  distinguished  from  cinnamon  by  being  more  brittle  and  of 
less  fibrous  texture  ;  it  is  not  so  pungent,  and  has  more  of  a  mucilagi- 
nous or  gelatinous  quality. 

CASSIA  BUDS  — Are  the  dried  flower-buds  of  the  same 
trees  which  yield  Cassia  bark.  In  appearance  they  resemble  cloves, 
the  flavor  being  similar  to  that  of  the  bark.  The  best  come  from 
•China,  and  are  rounder.  The  annual  importation  of  cassia  to  the 
United  States  exceeds  1,750,000  pounds. 

CASTOR-OIL. —  Oleum  ricini,  is  a  fixed  oil  obtained  from  the 
•Castor-oil  plant.  It  is  a  native  of  Asia,  but  has  become  naturalized 
in  most  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  earth.  It  varies  much  in  size 
and  habit ;  in  Africa  it  is  a  tree,  while  in  Europe  and  the  Northern 
States  of  America  it  is  an  annual,  varying  from  three  to  ten  feet  in 
height.  It  is  often  grown  in  gardens,  where  it  is  very  ornamental. 
The  seeds  are  about  the  size  of  a  small  bean,  oval,  the  surface 
smooth,  shining  and  beautifully  marbled.  The  oil  is  obtained  from 
the  seeds  by  heat  or  pressure,  or  by  both  combined.  It  is  of  better 
<juality  when  obtained  by  pressure  without  the  aid  of  heat,  and  is 
then  known  as  cold-pressed  oil.  The  quality  also  depends  upon  the 
stage  of  maturity  of  the  seeds,  and  the  variety  of  the  plant  from 
•which  they  are  obtained.  In  India,  large  quantities  are  extracted  by 
boiling  the  seeds  ;  but  the  oil  is  dark  in  color,  irritating  and  unfit  to 
be  used  in  medicine,  though  it  is  extensively  used  there  as  a  lamp  oil. 
When  pure,  castor-oil  is  of  a  light,  yellow  color,  slightly  viscid;  the 
best  being  almost  limpid  ;  of  nauseous  odor  and  oily  taste.  The  best 
castor-oil  is  one  of  the  mildest  of  purgatives ;  in  doses  of  one  or  two 
tea-spoonsfuls  it  is  a  gentle  laxative,  while  a  dose  of  a  "table-spoonful 
will  almost  always  open  the  bowels  freely.  The  chief  objection  to  its 
use  is  its  repulsive  taste,  which  some  attempt  to  obviate  by  putting  it 
into  hot  coflfee  or  spiced  syrup,  or  making  it  into  an  emulsion  with 
liquor  potassas  and  spicing  ;  others  take  it  in  soda  water.  It  is  also 
used,  in  some  localities,  as  axle-grease.  The  mauaufacture  of  castor 
•oil  is  carried  on  extensively  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  the  beans  being  grown 
in  Southern  Illinois  and  Missouri. 

CATSUP— Spelled  also  Catchup  and  Ketchup.— Properly  the 
juice  extracted  from  salted  mushrooms,  afterwards  boiled  in  spice, 
but  really  made  from  tomatoes,  green  walnuts  and  other  fruits  be- 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  31 

side  mushrooms — by  boiling  them  till  soft,  passing  them  through  a 
fine  sieve  and  seasoning  them  to  taste  with  a  variety  of  spices  and 
condiments.  It  is  one  of  the  most  popular  and  pleasant  sauces  in 
our  markets,  and  is  sold  either  in  bottles  or  in  bulk. 

CAULIFLOWER. — A  variety  of  the  common  cabbage,  of 
which,  unlike  the  other  kinds,  the  leaves  are  not  eaten.  The  parts 
used  are  the  flower-buds  and  the  stalks  of  the  plants,  which  have 
been  transformed  by  cultivation  into  a  compact,  rounded  head,  of  a 
white  color  and  of  delicate  flavor.  Besides  being  boiled  for  the  ta- 
ble, they  make  excellent  pickle,  and  are  always  found  in  the  mixed 
pickles  of  the  grocery  stores.  Two  crops  of  cauliflowers  may  be 
raised  in  the  season  ;  one  in  June  and  the  other  in  Autumn. 

CAYENNE. — Cayenne  Pepper  is  chiefly  derived  from  two 
species  of  Pepper-plants,  called  Caunuum  and  C.frutescans.  It  is 
an  annual  herbaceous  plant,  grows  in  very  poor  soil,  and  is  cultiva- 
ted in  most  parts  of  the  world.  It  grows  two  or  three  feet  high,  and 
bears  a  pod  of  a  conical  form  recurved  at  the  end  ;  green  when  im- 
mature, but  bright  scarlet  or  orange  when  it  ripens.  It  is  used  in 
the  green  state  for  pickling  and  in  medicine  ;  when  ripe,  dried  and 
ground  into  powder  to  make  cayenne  pepper.  In  England,  the  dried 
berries  kept  in  the  shops  are  called  Chilies.  In  Mexico,  and  other 
warm  countries  of  this  continent,  the  Red-pepper  is  one  of  the  neces- 
saries of  life.  The  common  people,  living  mostly  upon  vegetable 
food,  use  this  stimulant  freely,  and  it  forms  an  accompaniment  to 
every  meal.  The  cayenne  of  commerce  is  shamefully  adulterated 
with  red  lead  and  vermilion,  or  sulphuret  of  mercury,  all  deadly 
poisons.  They  are  added  to  keep  up  the  color  and  increase  the 
weight.  Ochres,  salt,  ground  turmeric  and  rice  are  the  other  adul- 
terating ingredients. 

CEREALS — Are  all  the  species  of  grass  which  bear  grain  food, 
such  as  wheat,  corn,  rye,  oats,  rice,  etc. 

CELERY.— The  leaf  stalks  of  this  plant,  when  blanched  (this 
process  being  required  in  order  to  be  rendered  more  palatable,  and 
which  is  accomplished  by  ridging  the  plants  with  earth  until  they  be- 
come whitened) ,  is  used  as  a  salad  and  an  appetizer.  The  smaller 
or  dwarf  varieties  are  much  superior  to  the  large  kinds.  It  is  some- 
times marketed  as  early  as  August,  but  reaches  its  prime  late  in  the 
season  —  from  January  to  March.  Celery  has  a  sweetish  and  aro- 
matic taste,  and  if  its  health-giving  qualities  were  known,  would  be 
much  more  widely  used  as  an  article  of  food. 

CHALK. — Chalk  is  a  soft,  pliable,  earthy  mineral,  consisting 
chiefly  of  carbonate  of  calcium.  It  is  imported  from  England,  and 
principally  used  for  educational  purposes,  such  as  marking  on  the 


32  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

blackboard,  drawing  crayons,  etc.     They  are  made  into  the  latter 
form  by  the  addition  of  wax,  various  pigments,  etc. 

CHAMPIGNONS— The  French  name  for  mushrooms,  which 
are  canned  and  imported  into  this  country  from  France,  where  mush- 
rooms are  much  more  generally  appreciated,  more  extensively  used, 
and  more  carefuly  cultivated  than  in  this  country. 

CHARGES. — These  items  in  the  wholesale  dealer's  bill  often 
lead  to  considerable  dispute,  but  a  tradesman  of  ordinary  busi 
ability  should  understand  positively  whether  he  buys  his  goods  in  th<* 
store,  or  delivered  in  the  depots,  or  freight  free  to  their  destination. 
The  charge  of  porterage  or  hauling  to  the  depot  is  usually  a  fair  onr, 
although  the  rate  is  sometimes  open  to  question.  Merchants  should 
be  exact  and  reasonable  in  making  charges,  and  then  adhere  firmly  to 
them,  because  if  quickly  waived,  the  retailer  is  convinced  that  they 
were  unjust ;  and  retailers  should  never  dispute  them  unless  certain 
of  their  ground.  Grocery  goods  are  generally  sold  in  store,  ami. 
when  extra  packages  are  required,  they  are  usually  charged. 

CHEDDAR. — A  name  derived  from  the  cheese  originally 
made  in  Cheddar,  England,  and  in  the  United  States'  markets  \* 
used  by  the  trade  to  designate  a  small,  high  cheese. 

CHERRIES. — Cultivated  cherries  are  of  many  varieties,  and 
come  of  two  distinct  species,  both  of  which  are  found  growing  wild 
*in  the  woods  of  England,  and  is  acclimated  in  this  country.  They 
are  eaten  both  raw  and  in  the  cooked  state.  In  the  forests  of  France 
they  are  made  the  ingredient  of  soup.  They  are  also  put  up  in  cans, 
or,  being  stoned  and  dried,  become  the  pitted  cherry  of  commerce. 
The  most  esteemed  variety  of  this  fruit  is  the  ivax  cherry,  a  beautiful 
cherry  of  light  color,  with  rosy  cheeks,  about  the  size  of  the  ordinary 
red  or  black  cherry,  named  from  its  beautiful  waxy  appearance. 
They  generally  arrive  in  market  in  May.  Cherries  are  a  very  useful 
dessert  fruit,  and  are  used  in  .pies  and  puddings.  Many  liquors  are 
made  from  or  flavored  with  them — such  as  cherry  brandy,  kirsch- 
wasser,  ratalia  and  maraschino,  and  are  also  applied  to  medicinal 
uses,  for  cough  mixtures,  etc.  They  are  dried  and  canned  exten- 
sively for  export  trade  and  home  consumption. 

CHEESE. — Cheese  is  the  compressed  and  of  coagulated  milk. 
caused  by  the  addition  of  some  acid  (usually  a  rennet),  separating 
the  curd  from  the  whey,  and  pressing  it  in  suitable  moulds.  Color- 
ing matter  and  salt  is  added  in  the  process  of  manufacture.  Very 
great  care  is  needed  to  preserve  the  most  perfect  cleanliness  in  all 
parts  of  the  process  of  cheese  making — milk  being  such  an  extremely 
sensitive  fluid  as  to  absorb  Avith  the  greatest  readiness  any  taint  with 
which  it  may  come  in  contact,  either  in  the  containing  vessels  or 


THE    GROCERS    COMPANION.  33 

those  that  may  exist  in  the  air.  The  air  of  the  dairy  should  there- 
fore be  pure  and  cool,  and  all  vessels  used  should  be  scalded  in  boil- 
ing water  as  soon  as  emptied,  and  left  to  dry  in  tha  direct  rays  of  the 
sun.  After  the  cheese  is  pressed,  it  is  taken  to  the  curing  room  where 
it  is  rubbed  thoroughly  with  fresh  melted  butter,  and  is  then  turned 
once  a  day,  and  repeatedly  rubbed  with  butter  until  it  is  cured.  The 
curing  room  should  be  kept  at  a  constant  temperature  of  about  sev- 
enty degrees,  and  should  be  dimly  lighted  to  keep  out  flies  and  avoid 
the  chemical  action  of  light  upon  the  curing  cheese,  at  the  same  time 
securing  perfect  ventilation. 

Beside  the  "whole  milk  cheese,"  which  is  supposed  to  be 
the  standard  product  of  the  dairy,  there  are  many  "skim-milk" 
cheeses  made  at  the  creameries  and  elsewhere  in  this  country,  in 
which  the  evening's  milk  is  set  and  the  cream  skimmed  from  it 
in  the  morning  and  used  to  make  butter,  whilst  the  skim-milk  is 
added  to  the  morning's  milk  and  made  into  cheese.  Skim-milk 
cheese  is  also  made  from  milk,  all  of  which  has  been  skimmed,  but 
it  is  hard  and  of  very  poor  quality.  It  is,  however,  very  largely 
manufactured  in  England,  and  is  used  by  the  laborers  in  some  coun- 
tries as  a'  substitue  for,  and  to  the  almost  entire  exclusion  of,  meat. 

Cream  cheeses  are  sometimes  made  of  pure  cream,  as  the  famous 
Neufchatel  cheese  made  in  France,  of  cream  thickened  by  heat  and 
compressed  in  a  mould.  It  is  esteemed  a  great  delicacy,  but  is  diffi- 
cult to  preserve  in  good  condition.  Cream  Cheddar  is  made  by  ad- 
ding the  cream  from  one  milking  to  the  whole  milk  of  the  next,  in 
the  proportion  of  one  quart  of  cream  to  ten  of  milk,  and  the  whole  is 
then  treated  much  the  same  as  in  the  process  of  making  whole  milk 
cheese,  but  is  handled  with  still  greater  care ;  and  when  placed  in 
the  hoop  is  pressed  by  its  own  weight,  only  being  turned  four  or  live 
times  a  day  until  sufficiently  firm  to  be  bandaged  and  taken  to  the 
curing  room. 

All  varieties  of  cheese  are  frequently  colored,  annatto  being  very 
commonly  used  to  give  an  orange  yellow  color,  while  many  English 
cheeses  are  given  a  greenish  hue  by  the  use  of  sage  and  various  kinds 
of  grass.  All  the  foreign  cheeses,  however,  have  been  successfully 
imitated  by  American  manufacturers — the  latter  being  in  quality  and 
flavor  equally  good  with  the  original,  and  frequently  very  difficult  to 
distinguish  from  the  imported.  Some  of  the  most  famous  European 
cheeses  are.  the  Cheddar  ;  the  Neufchatel,  a  French  cheese  made  from 
pure  cream ;  Cheshire  and  Double  Gloucester,  made  from  the  whole 
milk ;  Single  Gloucester,  from  half  new  and  half  skimmed  milk  ; 
Stilton  and  Wiltshire;  Gonda  cheese  is  made  in  Holland  by  curdling 
the  milk  with  muriatic  acid  instead  of  renet,  in  order  to  exclude 
mites.  Edam  cheese  is  a  firm,  rich  cheese,  almost  perfectly  ronnd, 
about  the  size  of  a  cocoanut,  and  is  painted  red.  Limburger  cheese, 
mostly  esteemed  by  Germans  and  Hollanders,  is  ripened  by  slow 


34  .    THE    (J  HOT  Kir*    COMPANION. 

heat  during  its  manufacture.  It  has  been  estimated  that  in  1872, 
2,000,000  pounds  of  Limburger  cheese  were  made  and  sold  in  this 
country.  Pineapple  Chew. — A  line  grade  of  cheese,  generally  im- 
ported and  made  iu  the  form  of  that  fruit.  Dealers  should  tell  their 
customers  to  cut  a  Pineapple,  cheese  so  that  the  upper  portion  will 
remain  as  a  lid,  Avhile  the  inside  is  cut  out  as  needed,  preserving  both 
the  cheese  and  its  shape.  Schweitzer  or  Swiss  cheese  is  a  strong, 
tough  cheese,  largely  made  and  eaten  by  our  German -American 
people  ;  it  has  a  strong  odor.  The  best  Italian  cheese  is  Parmesan,  a 
strong  skim-milked  article.  In  France,  Roquefort  is  the  high  grade. 
In  Switzerland,  Gruyere  and  Neucliatel — the  later  is  made  in  half- 
pound  size  from  goats'  milk  and  imported  while  fresh  ;  Gruyere  is 
skimmed  cows'  milk  flavored  with  herbs. 

As  an  article  of  food  cheese  is  very  nutritious,  but  when  eaten  in 
large  quantities  it  burdens  the  digestive  organs,  though  when  taken 
in  small  quantities  as  a  condiment,  it  stumulatcs  and  aids  the  diges- 
tion of  rich  food  and  desserts.  The  amount  of  cheese  produced  an- 
nually in  the  United  States  is  about  2,250,000  pounds — much  the 
larger  portion  of  which  is  made  in  factories,  of  which  there  are  about 
2,200. 

The  care  of  cheese  in  the  store  is  often  neglected.  In  warm 
weather  they  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  and  be  frequently 
inspected  and  turned  over  in  their  boxes.  If  they  show  signs  of 
swelling,  it  is  well  to  pierce  them  with  a  wire  to  give  vent  to  the  gas, 
which  can  afterwards  be  expelled  by  gently  pressure  on  the  swollen 
portion.  All  mould  or  mites  on  the  top  of  the  cheese  should  be 
neatly  scraped  off,  the  surface  rubbed  with  a  little  sweet  oil  after- 
wards ;  and  if  the  loose  sheet  or  plate  which  lies  on  the  top  and  bot- 
tom of  the  cheese  is  damp,  it  should  be  replaced  by  a  clean  and  dry 
one. 

CHESTNUTS. — The  chestnut  is  a  handsome  tree,  found  in 
Europe,  Asia  and  North  America.  It  attains  a  great  size,  growing 
to  the  height  of  sixty  to  eighty  feet  iu  fifty  or  sixty  years.  Its  tim- 
ber is  very  valuable,  and  is  used  for  miftiy  purposes,  making  excellent 
casks,  and  being  extensively  used  in  this  country  in  the  manufacture 
of  cigar  boxes.  The  nuts  are  enclosed  iu  a  hard  and  prickly  shell  or 
Jmrr,  each  burr  containing  from  one  to  three  nuts,  compressed  or 
flattened  on  one  or  both  sides.  Chesttiuts  form  an  important  article 
of  food  in  borne  parts  of  France,  and  also  in  many  of  the  mountain- 
ous regions  of  Europe  where  wheat  cannot  be  raised.  The  nuts  are 
eaten  either  raw,  steamed,  boiled  or  roasted ;  they  are  sometimes 
kiln-dried,  so  as  to  preserve  them  lor  seasons  of  scarcity.  Ground 
aud  reduced  to  a  powder,  they  make  a  good  bread ;  and  thoroughly 
washed,  they  make  a  good  substitute  for  chocolate.  They  ripen  with 
the  first  frost,  the  chestnut  flowering  in  June,  and  yielding  fruit  in 
October.  The  American  chestnut  is  smaller  and  sweeter  than  the 


THE    GKOCE/rX    COMPAXWX.  35 


Spanish  chestnut.  There  5s  also  a  very  small  dwarf  variety  of  the 
American  chestnut  called  the  Chincapin.  Chestnut  flour  is  called 
J'olenta;  is  highly  nutritious,  and  is  cooked  in  the  same  manner  as 
our  Corn-meal  cakes  or  Pone. 

CHICORY.  —  This  is  a  plant  of  the  Dandelion  family,  grow- 
ing wild  in  most  parts  of  Europe,  and,  to  a  moderate  extent,  in 
America.  Its  root,  for  the  sake  of  which  it  is  cultivated,  is  like  a 
large  white  carrot  ;  after  being  washed  and  cut  into  pieces  about  half 
an  inch  long,  it  is  kiln-dried  and  roasted,  the  same  as  coffee.  It  is 
then  ground  and  used  as  a  substitute  for,  and  adulteration  of,  coffee. 
Even  chicory  itself,  cheap  as  it  is,  is  grossly  adulterated  with  carrots, 
turnips,  oak-bark  tan,  acorns,  horse-chestnuts,  roasted  beans,  black 
walnut  or  mahogany  sawdust,  etc.  The  importations  of  chicory,  in 
its  various  forms  into  this  country,  amount  to  about  5,000,000 
pounds  per  annum,  at  an  average  value  of  four  cents  per  pound. 

CHLORIDE  OF  LIME—  Is  a  valuable  disinfecting  agent, 
and  an  absolute  necessity  in  every  household.  When  dissolved  in 
the  proportion  of  one  pound  to  six  gallons  of  water,  and  sprinkled 
about  the  house,  it  will  disperse  all  offensive  smells  ;  will  prevent  de- 
composition in  dead  animal  matter  ;  and  is  also  an  efficient  cleansing 
agent  when  applied  as  a  lotion  to  wounds,  ulcers  and  other  open  sores. 

CHOCOLATE.  —  This  article  is  prepared  from  the  seeds  of  the 
cacao  tree,  a  native  of  South  America,  Mexico  and  the  West  Indies. 
It  is  evergreen,  and  grows  to  the  height  of  from  twelve  to  sixtec-ii 
feet.  Its  fruit  resembles  a  cucumber,  and  is  five  or  six  inches  in 
length  and  three  inches  in  diameter,  each  pod  containing  from  twenty 
to  forty  beans,  arranged  in  rows,  about  the  size  of  the  sweet  almond. 
The  fruit  matures  for  gathering  in  June  and  December.  Before  the 
.Spaniards  landed  in  Mexico,  the  natives  made  a  sort  of  beverage  of 
the  seeds,  flavoring  it  with  allspice  or  vanilla.  The  Mexicans  call 
this  drink  Chocalat,  from  which  the  term  Chocolate  is  taken.  The 
cacao  beans  are  reduced  to  a  paste,  and  mixed  with  sugar  and  a  va- 
riety of  spices,  such  as  cinnamon,  cloves,  vanilla,  etc.,  and  moulded 
into  cakes  for  eating.  It  makes  a  pleasant  and  nutritious  drink 
when  dissolved  in  milk  or  hot  water.  It  is  also  extensively  used  in 
cooking,  confectionery,  etc.  Cooking  chocolate  is  made  with  little  or 
no  sugar,  while  for  all  other  purposes,  more  or  less  sxigar  is  always  to 
be  added.  Good  chocolate  should  be  smooth  in  form,  not  gritty  when 
broken,  and  should  leave  no  sediment  when  dissolved.  It  is  largely 
adulterated  with  rice  meal,  oat  meal,  flour,  potato  starch,  roasted 
hazel  nuts,  etc.,  all  of  which  adulterations  may  be  determined  by 
means  of  the  microscope.  It  is  colored  with  annatto  and  other  dyes. 
The  cacao  nibs  of  commerce  are  the  bruised  and  broken  seeds  of  the 
cacao,  but  the  mass  is  more  difficult  of  solution  than  chocolate. 


86  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

CACAO  SHELLS — Improperly  spelled  Cocoa,  is  the  thin  shell 
which  covers,  the  beans,  and  which  is  separated  before  they  are 
ground  and  reduced  to  a  powder.  These  shells  are  used  as  a  substi- 
tute for  chocolate,  and  are  preferred  by  many  people. 

BKOMA. — Is  the  name  given  to  a  certain  preparation  of  chocolate. 

The  importations  of  the  cacao  bean,  in  its  crude  form,  into  this 
country  (exclusive  of  the  numerous  fancy  varieties  of  eating  choco- 
late, confectionery,  etc.),  annually  aggregate  '  about  6,000,000 
pounds,  at  a  gross  value  of  $630,000. 

CHOW-CHOW. — A  mixture  of  pickled  vegetables,  of  various 
kinds  (cauliflower,  capsicum,  string-beans,  gherkin,  onion,  etc.)  in 
mustard. 

CHOWDER. — A  dish  composed  of  fish,  pork,  onions,  biscuit, 
etc.,  stewed  together,  and  much  appreciated  on  the  New  England 
coast,  where  clam-chowder  and  h'sh-chowder  parties  are  acknowledged 
institutions.  It  now  enters  the  trade  as  an  article  of  canned  goods. 

CHUTNEY. — A  condiment  of  East  Indian  origin  x  based  on 
mangoes,  and  very  highly  seasoned  with  various  spices.  It  is  rapidly 
gaining  public  favor  in  the  United  States. 

CIDER. — Cider  is  the  expressed  juice  of  the  apple,  whether 
fermented  or  unfermented,  and  is  obtained  by  chopping  them  and 
grinding  them  to  a  pulp,  and  then  by  subjecting  them  to  pressure  in 
a  mill,  when  a  dark  liquid  is  obtained,  which  almost  immediately  be- 
gins to  ferment,  and  in  a  few  days  becomes  the  clear,  amber-colored 
liquid  known  to  commerce  as  "sweet  cider."  If  great  care  is  not 
taken  to  preserve  it,  it  quickly  turns  sour,  and  becomes  "hard  cider." 
The  best  kinds  of  vinegar,  known  as  "cider  apple  vinegar,"  are 
made  directly  from  cider,  by  simply  putting  it  in  a  warm  place  and 
allowing  it  to  ferment.  On  purchasing  cider,  if  the  head  of  the  cask 
is  swollen  by  pressure  from  within,  a  hole  should  be  bored  in  order 
to  relieve  the  pressure  and  prevent  leakage.  It  should  be  kept  in  the 
coolest  part  of  the  cellar,  as  otherwise  it  is  apt  to  sour  after  being 
tapped.  At  a  temperature  of  about  75°  it  will  gradually  become 
vinegar.  It  is  sometimes  made  into  an  imitation  of  champagne, 
and  actually  sold  for  that  article. 

CIGARS. — Grocers,  especially  country  dealers  and  those  who 
handle  wines  in  the  cities,  are  adding  Cigars  arid  Tobaccos  to  their 
stocks.  The  brand,  size  and  color  of  cigars  are  peculiar.  The  brand 
is  generally  the  factory  mark,  each  manufacturer  having  a  myriad  of 
brands  The  sizes  or  styles  are  frequently  confounded  with  the  brand. 
They  are  designated  by  such  terms  as  Londres,  Londres  Chico,  Con- 
chas, Regalia  Londres,  Iteina  Victoria,  etc..  .signifying  simply  the 


THE    GROCERS    COMPANION.  37 

style  of  the  cigar,  without  any  reference  to  its  quality.  To  indicate 
the  color  of  a  cigar  there  are  four  principal  classifications,  viz  :  Col- 
orado-Claro,  which  is  light  brown  ;  Colorado,  a  medium  grade ; 
Colorado-Mad uro,  a  dark  brown  ;  Maduro,  the  darkest  brown.  The 
grade  or  selection  of  cigars  appertaining  to  each  size  or  style  is  repre- 
sented by  the  marks,  "flor,"  "  flor  fiua,"  "superior,"  "primera," 
"bueno."  As  a  general  rule,  "  flor  fina"  indicates  the  first  selection 
and  "  flor"  the  second. 

CINNAMON  BARK.— The  tree  from  which  this  is  taken  is  a 
native  of  Ceylon,  but  is  now  cultivated  in  South  America  and  the 
West  Indies.  The  whole  plant  of  the  true  Cinnamon  possesses  the 
same  aromatic  properties  as  contained  in  the  bark  ;  the  root  yields 
camphor  by  distillation.  The  bark  is  stripped  from  the  branches  of 
tour  to  five  years'  growth,  and  .is  from  half  an  inch  to  three  inches  in 
diameter.  The  strips  are  placed  one  above  another,  in  parcels  eight 
to  ten  inches  thick,  and  allowed  to  ferment,  by  which  process  the  skin 
and  green  bark  is  easily  removed,  the  inner  bark,  or  true  cinnamon, 
only  remaining.  It  is  then  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  as  it  dries,  rolls 
up  into  the  form  of  quills,  the  smaller  being  inserted  into  the  larger, 
and  the  whole  tied  up  in  bundles.  Good  cinnamon  is  known  by  the 
thinness  of  the  bark,  the  thinner  and  more  pliable  the  finer  the  qual- 
ity ;  when  it  is  broken,  the  fracture  is  splinters.  It  has  a  fragrant, 
aromatic  flavor,  and  is  used,  like  other  spices,  in  cooking  and  confec- 
tionery. Most  of  what  is  sold  for  cinnamon  in  our  markets  is  really 
cassia.  The  amount  of  true  cinnamon  annually  consumed  in  the 
United  States,  does  not  exceed  $4,100  in  value,  while  that  of  cassia 
is  about  $300,000,  or  seventy  times  the  amount  of  the  true  cinnamon. 

CITRON. — The  Citron  of  our  grocery  stores  is  the  preserved 
fruit  of  a  tree  produced  in  tropical  climates,  closely  related  to  the 
orange  and  lemon.  It  is  a  native  of  Asia,  but  is  extensively  culti- 
vated in  southern  Europe,  and  is  raised  to  great  perfection  in  the 
green-houses  of  the  United  States,  though  it  is  most  generally  seen  in 
our  markets  in  the  form  of  cured  preserves.  The  fruit  is  frequently 
as  much  as  six  inches  long,  some  of  the  largest  reaching  nine  inches, 
and  weighing  twenty  pounds.  It  is  of  an  oval  form,  uneven  on  the 
surface,  and  with  a  protuberance  on  the  top.  The  rind  of  the  citron 
is  cured  by  first  pickling  it  to  extract  the  bitter  flavor  and  absorb  the 
oil ;  then  it  is  boiled  and  immersed  in  a  solution  of  sugar  until  it  is 
entirely  saturated,  when  it  is  placed  on  racks  to  dry.  It  is  then 
packed  in  thin  boxes  (known  as  half  and  quarter  boxes),  for  the 
market,  ready  for  the  consumer.  It  makes  a  delicious  preserve,  and 
the  juice  is  used  in  much  the  same  way  as  lemon  juice,  though  it  is 
less  acid ;  it  is  an  indispensable  ingredient  in  fruit  puddings  and 
cakes,  and  is  used  to  some  extent  in  flavoring  liquors. 


38  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

CLA3IS. — The  most  common  shell-fish  found  along  our  sea 
coast,  and  universally  considered  as  one  of  the  greatest  delicacies 
furnished  us  by  the  sea — the  Clam  from  the  shores  of  Nnrrngan- 
sett  Bay  being  considered  the  best.  This  is  owing  undoubtedly  to 
the  proximity  of  the  Gulf  Stream.  The  fact  that  thousand?  from 
all  parts  of  the  country — including  the  Presidents  of  the  United 
States  and  other  distinguished  citizens — make  pilgrimages  annually 
to  Rhode  Island,  shows  that  the  flavor  of  this  delicious  bivalve  is 
duly  appreciated.  The  clam  is  dug  from  the  sands  of  the  shore, 
between  high  and  low  water,  usually  at  a  depth  of  from  six  to. 
eighteen  inches.  The  round  clam  or  qiiahaurj,  is  also  largely  used 
for  food,  although  it  is  much  inferior  to  the  other  descriptions.  In  a 
canned  form,  they  have  gone  into  extensive  use,  especially  in  the 
West.  Little-neck  clams  are  a  favorite  with  canners,  and  are  more 
generally  used  for  that  purpose  than  any  other  variety. 

CLOVES — Are  the  flower-buds  of  the  Clove-tree,  a  native  of 
the  Molucca  Islands,  but  now  cultivated  all  over  the  East  Indies, 
West  Indies,  Guiana  and  Brazil.  The  buds  are  gathered  by  hand, 
or  the  trees  are  beaten  with  rods,  so  that  they  fall  upon  cloths  placed 
under  the  trees  to  receive  them ;  and  they  are  cither  dried  in  the 
smoke  of  a  wood  fire  or  by  exposure  to  the  sun.  The  fruit,  which  i.-. 
a  dry  berry  and  known  by  the  name  of  Mother  Cloves,  contains  the 
same  aromatic  properties  as  the  buds,  only  in  a  much  weaker  form. 
Large,  dark,  well-formed  Cloves  are  the  best — those  known  as 
Amboyna  Cloves  being  the  leading  article  in  the  market.  The  qual- 
ity of  the  Clove  depends  entirely  on  the  amount  of  essential  oil  it, 
contains,  which,  when  extracted,  is  sold  as  the  Oil  of  Cloves.  The 
average  consumption  of  cloves  in  the  United  States  aggregates 
1,500,000  pounds  annually,  of  the  value  of  about  8250,000. 

COCOA  OR  CACAO  — Is  obtained  from  the  seeds' found  in 
the  pods  of  the  cacao,  a  palm-tree  growing  along  the  sea  coast  of  the 
tropical  portions  of  South  America.  It  is  a  very  nutricious  article  of 
diet,  and  is  prepared  in  several  ways.  The  common  cocon  or  solubh 
cocoa  is  prepared  by  reducing  the  beans,  shells  and  all  to  a  paste,  in 
which  form  it  maybe  mixed  with  sugar,  starch,  etc.,  the  same  a* 
chocolate.  When  the  beans  are  shelled,  bruised  and  broken  into 
small  pieces,  they  become  the  cocoa  nibs  of  commerce.  This  is  tho 
purest  cocoa  which  can  be  obtained  in  this  or  any  market.  The 
most  palatable  and  lightest  drink  obtainable  from  cocoa  is  that 
obtained  by  making  an  infusion  of  the  cocoa  nibs  in  boiling  water,. 
in  the  same  way  as  coffee  is  made.  A  similar  infusion  is  made  from, 
the  roasted  shells  of  the  beans,  and  by  some  this  is  considered  a 
lighter  and  more  digestible  beverage  than  the  other  preparations. 

COCOANUTS. — The  fruit  of  the  cocoanut   palm  is  one  of  aa- 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  3D 

lure's  richest  gifts  to  man.  "Without  this  tree,  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean  would  be  uninhabited,  and  its  inhabitants  left  to  perish 
from  hunger  and  thirst,  without  clothing  and  shelter.  The  solid  por- 
tion of  the  nut  is  much  esteemed  and  extensively  used  in  making 
cakes  and  pies.  When  the  fruit  has  attained  maturity,  the  milk  is 
absorbed  or  becomes  hard,  and  forms  the  hard,  white,  solid  albumen 
which  we  eat  in  this  country.  Each  tree  yields  from  eighty  to  one 
hundred  nuts  yearly,  and  will  continue  to  bear  for  two  generations. 

DESICCATED  COCOAXUT — Is  a  patent  preparation  of  cocoanut 
containing  water,  sugar  and  carbonate  of  soda.  It  is  put)  up  in 
packages  and  sold  as  shelf  goods,  and  is  largely  used  in  making 
puddings  and  pies. 

MACEKATED  COCOAXUT — Is  made  by  boiling  the  cocoanut  until 
it  is  soft  and  almost  fluid,  and  then  canning  it.  It  is  used  for  a  sim- 
ilar purpose  as  the  other  preparations — the  main  advantage  of  the 
desiccated  and  macerated  forms  being  their  great  convenience. 

COD-FISH. — Eight  species  of  this  fish  are  found  in  North 
America.  The  American  Cod  is  found  along  the  New  England  coast 

O  D 

from  New  York  to  the  St.  Lawrence  Iliver.  It  is  the  most  common 
food-fish,  except  Herring,  Mackerel  and  Bluefish,  and  is  taken  in 
large  quantities  by  the  hook  along  the  North  Atlantic  coasts  and  the 
Arctic  seas.  The  fish  vary  in  size  from  a  few  pounds  to  one  hun- 
dred pounds  weight,  the  average  being  less  than  ten  pounds.  One 
man  has  been  known  to  take  over  five  hundred  cod  in  one  day  on  the 
Banks  of  Newfoundland.  They  are  used  fresh,  salted  or  dried,  and, 
in  the  latter  state,  are  usually  sold  by  the  quintal  of  one  hundred 
and  twelve  pounds.  Block  Island  cured  cod-fish  are  considered  the 
best,  although  much  smaller  than  usually  found  in  our  markets,  and 
bring  considerable  more  per  pound  than  any  other.  Massachu- 
setts ranks  first  in  its  cod  fisheries,  Maine  coming  next.  Gloucester 
is  the  great  fishing  port  of  the  country.  South-east  of  Massachusetts 
is  a  fishing  bank  known  as  George's  Bank,  from  which  we  derive 
our  Georgia  Bank  Cod. 

Dux-Fisn — So  called  from  their  color — are  Cod-Fish  cured  by 
being  salted  and  piled  under,  salt  grass  for  three  months  in  a  dark 
room ;  after  which  they  are  opened  and  again  piled  in  a  compact 
mass  for  a  similar  period. 

COD  LIVEK  OIL — Is  the  oil  expressed  from  the  cod's  liver  by 
cold-pressure,  which  is  strained  and  rectified,  and  used  as  a  remedy 
in  pulmonary  diseases. 

COD  TONGUE  AND  SOUNDS — Are  frequently  preserved  in  pickle, 
and  sold  in  that  form  to  the  public.  From  the  sounds,  when  pre- 
served and  dried,  isinglass  is  obtained. 

BONELESS  COD  —  Is  a  form  prepared  for  market  by  taking  out 


40  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

the  bones  and  packing  the  flesh  in  boxes,  either  in  strips  or  long 
rolls.  A  great  deal  of  this  stock  is  inferior  in  quality,  and  very  fre- 
quently hake  and  haddock  are  substituted  for  the  cod.  Dried  had- 
dock may  be  distinguished  from  the  cod  by  its  lateral  line  being  black, 
that  of  the  cod  being  white.  More  than  15,000  persons  are  engaged 
in  the  cod  fisheries  in  the  United  States  ;  and  from  40,000  to  50,000 
in  the  trade  between  Canada  and  Newfoundland.  The  quantity  of 
cured  cod  annually  brought  in  by  American  ships  is  nearly  600,000 
pounds,  of  the  value  of  $4,000,000. 

COFFEE. — Coffee  derives  its  name  from  Caffa  or  Kaffa,  a 
province  of  Southern  Abyssinia,  where  the  plant  grows  wild,  and 
has  been  used  from  the  earliest  times.  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
ninth  century  it  is  believed  to  have  been  introduced  from  Ethiopia 
into  Persia,  and  into  Arabia  about  the  fifteenth  century,  and  in  1554 
the  first  coffee  house  in  Europe  was  established  in  Constantinople. 
The  first  coffee  house  in  London  was  opened  in  1652  by  a  Greek, 
and  in  Marseilles,  France,  in  1671.  Burton,  an  English  writer  in 
his  "Anatomy  of  Melancholy,"  speaks  of  the  Turks  as  having 
found  by  experience  that  this  "drink  helpeth  digestion  and  procur- 
eth  alacrity." 

The  Coffee-tree  grows  and  flourishes  in  all  warm  climates,  varie- 
ties of  the  plant  being  found  in  Brazil,  Peru,  Central  America,  Java 
and  Sumatra.  Southern  India,  Africa  (including  Abyssinia,  Natal, 
Gold  Coast  and  Liberia),  Arabia,  Manilla,  the  Mauritius  in  the 
West  India  Islands  and  Islands  of  the  Pacific.  But  Brazil  in  the 
Western  hemisphere,  and  Java,  Sumatra,  Ceylon  and  India  in  the 
Eastern  hemisphere,  constitute  at  this  time  the  great  centres  of  the 
coffee  production.  Coffee  is  divided  commercially  into  two  classes, 
strong  and  mild.  Strong  coffee  includes  Rio  and  Santos,  but  more 
particularly  Rio.  East  India  coffees  embrace  all  coffee  raised  east  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and,  with  the  exception  of  Mocha,  is  prin- 
cipally raised  on  islands.  They  are  Javas,  Ceylons,  Malabars  and 
Madagascars. 

The  strong  coffees,  Rio  and  Santos,  are  a  product  of  Brazil,  a 
country  which,  although  in  its  infancy,  is  to-day  supplying  more 
than  one-half  of  the  entire  coffee-crop  of  the  world.  The  coffee  of 
Brazil  varies  greatly  in  size  and  color.  Most  of  the  Rio  received 
here  is  a  small-sized  bean,  varying  in  color  from  a  light  to  a  dark 
green,  with  something  of  a  yellow  hue,  known  as  Golden  Rio.  In 
flavor  it  is  peculiarly  distinct  from  all  other  coffee  grown,  being  very 
rank  and  strong.  It  is  shipped  from  the  port  of  Rio  Janeiro  prin- 
cipally. The  principal  ports  of  entry  into  the  United  States  are  New 
York,  Baltimore  and  New  Orleans.  The  coffee  trade  was  formerly 
controlled  by  a  few  wealthy  importers,  through  bankers,  and  sold  to 
jobbers,  who  resold  to  the  wholesale  grocers  throughout  the  United 
States.  The  Eastern  coffee  jobbers  now  receive  Rio  direct,  and  sell 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  41 

or  consign  to  our  Western  States,  although  some  of  the  large  western 
jobbers  are  now  importing  direct.  The  West  and  South  are  the 
great  consumers  of  Rio. 

Santos  coffee  is  produced  in  the  southern  districts  of  the  Brazil- 
ian Empire,  and  possesses,  in  a  mild  degree,  all  the  characteristics  of 
Rio,  and  its  sale  is  conducted  in  the  same  manner.  The  total  yearly 
production  of  Brazil  amounts  to  a  trifle  over  550,000,000  pounds. 
Of  this  the  United  States  absorbs  the  largest  portion  of  the  Rio  ex- 
port, while  Europe  takes  about  eighty-five  per  cent,  of  the  Santos. 

Mild  coffees  embrace  all  coffees,  except  Rios  and  Santos.  Some 
of  them  are  very  rank  and  of  positive  flavor  ;  they  are  sold  separately 
or  are  mixed  and  combined  in  such  a  manner  as  to  lose  their  indi- 
viduality. The  most  prominent  of  all  mild  coffees  is  Java ;  this  is 
raised  on  the  islands  of  Java  and  Sumatra,  and  ranks  first  in  the 
estimation  of  the  coffee-drinking  public  of  the  United  States.  The 
mild  coffees  of  South  America  actually  excel  the  Java  varieties  in 
style  and  drinking  qualities  ;  and  were  it  not  for  the  all-powerful  name 
of  Java  which  they  bear,  they  would  not  be  recognized  as  even  ap- 
proaching pureness.  Sumatra  coffee  is  raised  on  the  island  of  Suma- 
tra, and  is  known  commercially  as  Free  Java's,  because  the  Dutch 
government  do  not  control  its  sale.  Little  care  is  taken  in  the  culti- 
vation and  curing,  and  a  large  proportion  is  ground-stained,  conse- 
quently it  is  a  large,  irregular  bean,  and  drinks  inferior.  The  Sing- 
apore Java  grades  have  a  very  peculiar  and  disagreeable  taste — a 
circumstance  which  will  account  for  the  fact  that,  although  larg« 
quantities  are  imported,  there  is  not  a  pound  sold.  The  fact  is  that 
it  is  recolored  chemically  in  New  York  and  sold  as  Padang  coffee. 

Latterly,  there  has  been  imported  into  the  United  States  what  is 
called  Plantation  coffee — that  is,  coffee  raised  from  fine  selected  seed 
on  large  private  estates  on  the  island  of  Java.  Such  estates,  being 
under  the  best  agricultural  conditions,  with  unlimited  capital  and  in- 
telligent manipulation,  produce  a  coffee  which,  in  the  cup,  makes  the 
finest  drink  ever  produced ;  and,  recently,  some  of  our  most  enter- 
prising coffee  dealers  have  imported  these  coffees  largely.  Practi- 
cally the  demand  for  a  brown  Java  is  an  American  caprice, which 
has  enhanced  its  commercial  value  two  or  three  cents  per  pound,  and 
this  caprice  is  also  directly  responsible  for  the  immense  quantity  of 
imitation  brown  Java  at  the  present  flooding  the  market.  In  New 
York  City  tons  of  such  coffee  are  produced  daily.  This  condition  of 
affairs  will  last  just  as  long  as  it  is  the  exception,  rather  than  the 
rule,  for  wholesale  dealers  to  buy  coffee  on  style  and  color,  and  ne- 
glect through  carelessness  (or  rather  ignorance) ,  to  roast  and  test 
samples  in  the  cups  after  the  manner  of  testing  teas. 

Mocha,  the  aristocratic  coffee  of  the  world,  is  grown  in  Arabia. 
The  bean  is  very  small  and  irregular  in  appearance,  drinks  hard, 
acrid  and  peculiar,  and  when  roasted  is  one  of  the  most  unsightly 


42  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

coffees  grown ;  inrariably  "quakery,"  owing  to  the  in.'ense  heat 
prevalent  where  the  coffee  grows.  Vast  quantities  ot'  Malabar  and 
small  bean  Ceylons  are  shipped  to  Alexandria,  matted  and  exported 
as  genuine  Mocha.  The  imports  of  Mocha  received  into  the  United 
States  average  15,000  bales  annually,  only  about  one-half  of  which 
is  of  Arabian  growth. 

Ceylon  coffee  takes  its  name  from  its  place  of  growth,  and  is 
the  great  rival  of  Java  in  the  East,  but  most  of  it  goes  to  England. 
It  is  a  very  solid,  oily  bean,  transparent  in  color,  and  is  largely  con- 
sumed in  England.  Native  or  common  Ceylon  is  raised  on  the  low- 
lands, resembles  in  size  and  color  of  bean  Maracaibo,  but  lacks  its 
strength.  It  is  poor,  drinks  weak,  and  roasts  "quakery,"  from  the 
numerous  blighted  or  undeveloped  beans. 

Maracaibo  coffee  is  a  product  of  the  northern  part  of  South 
America,  being  raised  in  Venezuela.  Probably  no  coffee  raised  is 
sold  under  such  false  colors  as  this.  It  has  been  found  to  be  an  ex- 
cellent substitute  for  Java,  and  also  for  mixing  with  Java,  and  its 
use  for  this  purpose  is  fully  recognized  by  the  trade.  The  United 
Suites  consumes  five  times  as  much  as  there  is  imported  into  the 
United  States.  Maracaibo  coffees  are  packed  in  a  peculiar  bag  made 
of  string,  resembling  a  fine  net,  the  contents  being  plainly  seen 
through  the  meshes. 

Jamaica  coffee  is  grown  on  the  island  of  Jamaica,  and  is  much 
superior  to  any  variety  grown  in  the  West  Indies  ;  it  possesses  fine 
aromatic  qualities,  and  is  very  popular  with  intelligent  coffee  dealers. 
Blue  Mountain  Jamaica,  which  certainly  possesses  as  much  merit  as 
any  coffee  raised,  is  a  solid,  heavy,  oily  bean,  almost  transparent  in 
color,  will,  when  roasted  and  ground,  make  a  delicious  and  fragrant 
cup  of  coffee.  It  is  usually  packed  in  barrels  and  casks,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  Plantation  Ceylon,  is  the  only  coffee  so  exported. 

The  more  prominent  coffees  of  Central  America  are  Nicaragua, 
San  Salvador,  Guatemala  and  Costa  Rica — all  of  which  are  fre- 
quently sold  as  Costa  Rica,  which  has  a  peculiar,  positive  flavor  ;  is 
dark  liquor  in  the  cup,  very  strong  and  acid  to  the  taste  ;  the  bean  is 
green,  semi-transparent,  large  and  flat ;  has  many  attributes  of  other 
coffees,  especially  Mocha,  and,  if  carefully  selected,  would  make  a 
coffee  of  high  rank. 

»  Mexican  coffee  has  shown  a  marvellous  improvement  in  the  last 
few  years.  Five  years  ago  the  demand  was  very  limited,  owing  to 
its  poor  drinking  qualities  ;  but  these  have  now  disappeared,  and  some 
exceedingly  fine  coffees  are  being  received  from  Mexico,  ranking 
equal  to  any  of  the  South  American  mild  grades. 

African  coffee  is  a  small-sized  bean,  gnarly  and  unsightly  in 
appearance,  and,  like  Libesian,  drinks  strong  and  rank,  possessing 
no  fine  qualities,  and  consequently  is  very  unsaleable. 

Manilla  coffee  is  only  occasionally  imported  into  this  country, 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  45 

possesses  no    recommendatory    qualities,  and   drinks   like    many  of 
those  mysterious  package-preparations  labelled  coffee.     e 

SKIMMINGS. — This  variety  is  literally  what  its  name  indicates  ; 
the  process  of  obtaining  it  being  as  follows  : — A  greater  or  less  por- 
tion of  each  cargo  is  found  upon  arrival  to  be  damaged  by  dampness, 
discoloring  the  bean,  and  rendering  it  mouldy  and  musty.  That  por- 
tion of  the  cargo  packed  along  the  sides  and  top  of  the  hold  are  moro 
or  less  stained,  and  can  be  easily  detected  by  the  outward  appearance 
of  the  bag  or  mat.  These  are  cut  open,  and  the  damaged  beans  are 
skimmed  off;  the  remainder  are  then  rebagged  and  sold  as  sound 
coffee,  although  it  is  an  open  question  whether  they  can  be  consid- 
ered as  such.  Many  good  judges  maintain  that,  as  coffee  is  very 
susceptible  of  outside  flavors,  the  odor  of  the  mouldy  beans  pene- 
trates through  the  whole  Bag.  The  skimmings  of  Java,  after  beiug- 
rebagged,  are  classified  and  marked  by  a  small  stencil  or  brush  ou 
one  corner  of  the  package,  as  follows  :  G.  S. — signifying  good  skim- 
mings ;  P.  S. — poor  skimmings  ;  S.  S. — stone  sweepings.  In  ap- 
pearance good  Java  skimmings  show  very  little  damage.  In  fact, 
unless  closely  examined,  would  pass  for  sound  coffee,  and  sell  readily/ 
for  from  two  to  three  cents  per  pound  less  than  the  straight  goods. 
Usually  the  demand  is  in  excess  of  the  supply,  and  this  is  met  by 
using  Singapore  Java  (an  exceedingly  offensive  description),  and 
coloring  South  American  mild  coffees  by  sweating,  taking  care  to* 
eprinklo  in  a  few  damaged  or  black  beans  in  order  fully  to  stamp 
them  as  skimmings.  After  roasting,  it  is  impossible  to  detect  these 
goods  from  sound  coffee  by  their  appearance.  It  is  very  rare  to  find 
a  lot  that  in  the  cup  does  not  develop  musty  flavors. 

[Under  the  head  of  "Adulterations,"  we  have  enumerated'  tha 
various  ways  in  which  coffee  is  sophisticated,  to  which  we  refer  our 
readers.]] 

The  shrinkage  of  Coffee  by  roasting  averages  from  15  to  16  per 
cent.  ;  extremely  green  lots  losing  18  per  cent.,  while  a  very  old 
coffee  will  not  lose  more  than  12  or  13  per  cent.  The  roasting  pro- 
cess will  develop  in  every  coffee  a  certain  amount  of  what  are  termed 
"quakers,"  viz  :  beans,  which,  while  on  the  trees  become  sun-dried — 
the  oil,  which  is  the  essence  or  flavor  of  the  coffee,  evaporating,  and 
leaving  nothing  but  the  lifeless  berry  behind  ;  they  roast  white  and 
are  perfectly  tasteless.  After  roasting,  coffee  deteriorates  by  exposure- 
to  the  air,  and  should  be  kept  in  air-tight  cans.  It  will  be  injured  by 
absorbing  the  odor  of  other  substances,  such  as  pepper,  cinnamon  or 
any  particle  of  an  aromatic  character.  Simple  as  it  may  seem,  the 
process  of  grinding  the  roasted  bean  is  one  that  requires  much  more- 
attention  than  is  now  given  to  it.  Coarse  ground  coffee  require* 
protracted  boiling  to  extract  its  strength,  and  much  boiling  is  fatal  to 
a  good  cup  of  coffee.  While  one  may  grind  too  finely,  the  mistake 
of  grinding  too  coarsely  is  the  one  most  generally  made.  Just  to 


44  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

what  degree  of  fineness  it  should  be  ground,  depends  somewhat  on 
the  manner  of  making  the  coffee. 

The  annual  consumption  of  Coffee  in  the  United  States  is  eight 
pounds  per  head;  in  Holland  and  Germany,  fourteen  pounds  per 
head ;  and  in  England,  only  one  pound  per  head.  The  total  amount 
of  coffee  imported  into  the  United  States  annually  may  be  stated  in 
round  numbers  at  330,000,000  pounds,  and  its  value  nearly  $60,000,- 
000 — the  consumption  for  the  same  period  amounting  to  about 
325,000,000  pounds,  at  a  gross  value  of  $55,000,000. 

Coffee  contains  valuable  medicinal  properties — among  others, 
that  of  producing  wakefulness — hence  its  usefulness  as  an  antidote  in 
cases  of  narcotic  poisoning.  Coffee  has  frequently  been  found  the 
best  form  of  stimulant  for  administration  to  persons  rescued  from 
starvation  or  perishing  by  cold ;  and  this  is  the  more  noteworthy,  as 
ardent  spirits,  given  under  the  same  conditions,  often  prove  fatal. 
How  often  we  hear  the  significant  remark — ' '  I  can  make  my  break- 
fast off  a  cup  of  coffee." 

Captain  Parry,  when  on  his  Arctic  expedition,  put  his  star- 
board watch  on  coffee,  and  the  port  watch  on  rum  ;  and  the  result 
was  that,  in  the  course  of  time,  the  coffee  watch  was  found  to  pos- 
sess a  vigor  of  health  entirely  wanting  in  the  other.  As  late  as  1835, 
during  a  fearful  epidemic,  the  physicians  of  New  York  signed  a  pub- 
lic manifesto,  urging  the  public  to  abstain  from  beer  and  intoxicating 
liquors,  and  drink  pure  coffee,  in  order  to  keep  the  system  healthy  and 
render  it  less  liable  to  disease.  From  all  quarters,  testimoiay  with- 
out limit,  might  be  accumulated  to  the  same  effect. 

As  a  disinfecting  agent,  roasted  coffee  is  invaluable ;  it  is  use- 
ful to  purify  any  place  having  an  offensive  smell  or  foul  air.  The 
coffee  beans  should  be  roasted  in  the  vicinity  of  the  room  to  be  fumi- 
gated, and  when  brown  and  while  hot,  placed  in  the  centre.  By 
the  time  the  coffee  is  cooled,  the  room  will  be  rendered  thoroughly 
pure  and  sweet. 

COFFEE  EXTRACT. — A  patent  compound,  very  seldom  made  from, 
or  containing  any  pure  coffee,  which  is  extensively  used  in  cheap 
boarding-houses  by  mixing  it  with  the  real  article.  It  naturally  en- 
joyed a  better  demand  when  coffee  sold  at  thirty -five  and  forty  cents, 
than  at  its  present  reasonable  price. 

COFFEE  ESSENCE. — A  very  strong  infusion  of  coffee  mixed  with 
chicory  and  burnt  sugar  until  it  is  about  as  thick  as  molasses.  It 
should  be  kept  in  well-corked  bottles. 

COMPRESSED  YEAST— The  most  powerful  of  all  ferment- 
ing agents  is,  in  this  country,  comparatively  a  new  yeast,  and  spe- 
cially designed  for  the  convenience  of  housewives  who  make  their  own 
bread — it  having  been  introduced  from  Germany  some  twenty  years 


THE    GROCER'S  COMPANION.  45 

since,  by  Gaft,  Fleischman  &  Co.,  the  manufacturers,  still  maintain- 
ing and  increasing  its  popularity. 

CONDENSED  MILK — Is  an  essential  article  for  travellers  and 
settlers  in  the  more  sparsely  populated  sections  of  the  States,  and  has 
proved  a  great  luxury  and  convenience  to  the  inhabitants  of  our  towns 
and  cities.  It  is  very  extensively  used  on  shipboard,  no  steamer  or  ves- 
sel's larder  being  considered  complete  without  a  full  supply  of  the  most 
valuable  brands.  It  is  thus  manufactured  :  When  the  milk  is  brought 
into  the  manufactory,  it  is  carefully  strained,  placed  in  cans  or  pails, 
which  are  put  inio  a  tank  of  water,  kept  hot  by  steam  coils.  Wliea\ 
hot  it  is  transferred  to  larger  steam-heated  open  vessels,  and  quickly 
brought  to  a  boil.  This  preliminary  heating  and  boiling  has  for  its 
object  the  expulsion  of  the  gases  of  the  milk,  which  would  cause  it  to 
foam  in  the  vacuum-pan,  and  also  to  add  to  the  keeping  quality  of  tha 
milk  by  destroying  the  mould  germs.  A  second  straining  follows* 
alter  which  the  milk  is  transferred  to  a  vacuum  pan,  where,  at  a 
temperature  of  160°  F.,  it  boils,  and  is  rapidly  concentrated  to> 
any  degree  desired.  The  vacuum  pan  employed  is  a  close,  egg-shaped 
vessel  of  copper,  about  six  feet  high  and  four  and  a  half  feet  in  diam- 
eter. It  is  heated  by  steam  coils  within  and  a  steam  jacket  without* 
enclosing  the  lower  portion.  In  one  side  of  the  dome  is  a  smalt  win- 
dow, through  which  the  gas  illuminates  the  interior,  while  on  the- 
opposite  side  is  an  eye-glass,  through  which  the  condition  of  the  con- 
tents may  be  observed.  The  pan  is  also  provided  with  a  vacuum* 
gauge  and  test  sticks. 

Much  of  the  milk  used  in  cities  is  simply  concentrated  without 
any  addition  of  sugar.  The  process  of  concentration  in  continued  ia 
the  vacuum  pan,  until  one  gallon  of  milk  has  been  reduced  to  less- 
than  a  quart — one  part  of  condensed  milk  being  equal  to  about  four 
and  three-tenths  its  bulk  of  milk.  Condensed  milk,  intended  to  be- 
preserved  any  length  of  time,  has  an  addition  of  pure  cane  sugar 
made  to  it  during  boiling,  and  is  usually  put  up  in  sealed  cans.  This- 
sugared,  or  ''preserved"  milk,  will  keep  for  years.  It  is  especially 
recommended  for  invalids  and  infants  use,  and  is  adapted  to  all  do- 
mestic purposes  for  which  milk  is  essential. 

CONFECTIONERY.— This  term  necessarily  includes  candies, 
and  all  preparations  which  have  sugar  for  their  basis  or  principal  in- 
gredient. Under  "this  definition  jams,  jellies,  pastes,  etc.,  would 
properly  be  included  ;  but  we  shall  only  notice  those  which  come  un- 
der the  designation  of  candies,  sweetmeats,  etc.,  which  now  consti- 
tute an  extensive  industry.  All  the  various  kinds  of  candy  may  be 
brought  under  the  general  divisions  of  stick  candy,  as  follows  : — 

MIXTURES. — Machine- work,  such  as  the  fancy  shapes  of  clear 
candy,  cut  or  moulded  into  the  shape  of  animals  and  various  figures. 


4G  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

LOZENGES — Which  maybe  considered  a  special  class  of  machiue- 
\vork. 

HARDS  OR  COMFITS — Which  consist  of  a  nut  kernel,  or  other 
suitable  article  enclosed  in  a  sugar  coating. 

FRUITS — Which  include  all  the  ways  in  which  fruits  can  be  pre- 
served— crystallized,  candied,  juices  and  essences  mixed  with  the 
sugar,  or  enclosed  in  a  capsule,  etc. 

GUMS  OR  PASTES — Including  such  candies  as  gum  drops,  marsh 
mallows,  etc.,  based  on  gum  arabic  or  some  other  gum. 

CREAMS — In  the  caramel  and  other  forms  in  which  chocolate, 
fruit  essences,  vanilla,  etc.,  can  be  incorporated. 

PAN  WORK — Which  includes  taffy  and  other  candies  made  in 
large,  flat  cakes. 

All  these  differerit  varieties  have  sugar  as  their  base,  other  ingre- 
dients being  added  to  give  flavor  and  consistency. 

SUGAR  CANDY — Is  prepared  from  a  solution  of  sugar,  boiled  to 
the  point  of  crystallization.  It  may  be  prepared  from  cither  brown 
•or  refined  sugar — to  the  latter  cochineal  or  some  other  coloring  ingre- 
dient being  added.  These  solutions,  when  boiled  to  a  proper  degree, 
«,re  poured  into  moulds,  across  which  at  sufficient  intervals  are 
stretched  pieces  of  string.  The  sugar  gradually  crystallizes  from  its 
solution  on  the  sides  of  the  mould  and  on  the  strings — the  apartment 
being  meantime  kept  at  a  temperature  of  90°  to  100°.  Sugar  drops 
are  made  from  fine  sugar,  mixed  with  a  small  portion  of  water,  and 
coloring  and  flavoring  matter  as  desired.  The  mixture  is  dissolved 
by  heat  but  not  allowed  to  boil,  and  is  then  poured  in  separate  drops 
on  a  sheet  of  paper  on  which  they  quickly  set  and  harden. 

What  is  termed  boiled  sugar — that  is,  sugar  which  has  boiled 
until  by  cooling  and  hardening  it  assumes  a  glassy  appearance  and 
fracture — is  the  basis  of  another  variety  of  confectionery.  Of  this 
class,  barley  sugar  is  the  type  and  simplest  example.  It  merely  con- 
sists of  sugar  boiled  as  described,  flavored,  cut  into  strips,  and  rolled 
or  twisted  into  sticks.  Boiled  sugar  is  prepared  in  various  fancy 
forms  by  passing  it,  while  still  glutinous,  through  small  machines,  in 
which  pairs  of  brass  rollers,  having  patterns  sunk  in  the  surface, 
stamp  these  patterns  into  the  material.  It  is  also  worked  up  in  the 
ibriu  ot  balls,  plaited  into  coils,  and  formed  into  many-colored  sticks, 
•«tc.  Most  of  the  candy  now  manufactured  is  largely  adulterated  with 
starch,  plaster,  etc.  The  coloring  matter  is  cochineal  for  red,  and 
various  dyes  and  pigments  for  the  other  colors,  most  of  them  being 
.poisonous  in  their  nature. 

COPPERAS  (Green  Yitriol)  .—This  is  a  mineral,  largely 
•used  for  dyeing  black,  and  is  soluble  in  water.  It  is  also  used  in  the 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  47 

manufacture  of  common  Mack  ink,  and  is  especially  valuable  as  a 
disinfectant.  It  is  ordinarily  produced  by  dissolving  iron  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  filtering  and  evaporating  the  solution,  and  setting  it 
ti.-nde  to  crystallize.  Large  quantities  are  made  in  this  way  from  the 
refuse  sulphuric  acid  which  has  been  used  in  petroleum  refineries.  It 
is  also  obtained  from  the  oxidation  of  sulphides  of  iron  or  pyrites, 
which,  after  i  ein<j  roasted,  absorb  oxygen  spontaneously  from  moist 
air,  and  are  slowly  converted  into  copperas.  There  is  a  constant  and 
increasing  demand  for  this  article,  both  for  manufacturing  and  do- 
mestic use. 

CORIANDER  SEED.— The  fruit  of  a  small  plant,  growing 
chiefly  ia  the  south  of  Kurope.  It  is  principally  used  for  flavoring  cur- 
ries, confectionery  and  other  culinary  preparations.  The  consump- 
tion of  this  article  in  the  United  States  (in  conjunction  with  caraway 
seeds,  a  similar  product),  reaches  900,000  pounds  per  annum. 

CORK. — The  bark  of  a  species  of  oak  tree  growing  along  the 
course  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  trees  are  peeled  every  ten 
years.  The  great  sheets  of  b-irk  are  charred  or  half  burnt  on  both 
sides,  and  while  hot  are  laid  flat  on  each  other,  and  Aveights  put  upon 
them  to  flatten  them  ;  they  are  then  shipped  in  bales  for  export,  and 
manufactured  into  the  numerous  forms  in  which  they  are  used  by  the 
grocery  and  other  trades. 

CORN. — Properly  speaking,  this  term  is  applied  to  all  farinace- 
ous grains  used  for  food ;  but,  in  many  countries,  it  is  restricted  to 
one  particular  kind  of  grain  ;  as,  for  instance,  in  Scqtland  it  means 
oats ;  in  England  it  refers  to  loheat;  but  in  our  own  country  the  term 
is  restricted  to  maize  or  Indian  corn,  of  which  several  varieties  are 
cultivated.  There  is  the  Yellow  corn,  grown  in  the  Northern  States  ; 
the  White  or  Southern  corn — which  is  named  from  the  color  of  the 
grain  when  ripe  ;  and  the  Sweet  corn,  the  ripe  grain  of  which  has  a 
shrivelled  look.  This  is  the  variety  most  esteemed  for  table  use  as  a 
vegetable.  There  is  also  a  small  variety,  called  Pop-corn  (a  special 
favorite  with  the  children  throughout  the  Union) ,  so  called  from  the 
slight  explosion  with  which  the  husk  of  the  grain  bursts  when  .the 
interior  is  expanded  by  heat  in  roasting. 

Corn  is  most  extensively  used  in  the  shape  of  Corn  meal,  which 
is  made  into  bread,  mush,  puddings  and  cakes  of  various  kinds,  and, 
in  large  portions  of  the  country,  forms  the  chief  article  of  food.  It  is 
also  extensively  canned  for  use  as  a  vegetable. 

COTTON-SEED  OIL.— This  oil  is  rapidly  being  brought  into 
domestic  use  as  a  substitute  for  lard  and  olive  oil.  For  many  years 
it  has  been  shipped  from  the  United  States  to  Spain  and  Italy,  and 
sent  back  to  us  again  as  pure  olive  oil.  Many  families  are  prejudiced 
against  lard,  and  prefer  to  cook  in  olive  oil ;  and,  certainly  for  this 


48  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

purpose  cotton-seed  oil  answers  quite  as  well,  being  much  more  con- 
venient, as  good  in  quality  and  much  cheaper.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  before  many  years  are  over,  every  grocery  store  in  the  United 
States  will  keep  a  large  supply  in  stock.  It  is  not  prepared  by  any 
special  process,  but  is  simply  the  refined  vegetable  oil  pressed  from 
the  cotton-seed.  Even  at  the  present  time,  it  is  largely  employed  in 
packing  American  sardines  and  in  making  soaps. 

CRABS. — This  is  a  general  name  applied  indiscriminately  to  all 
shell-fish  (or  rather  crustaceans) ,  of  which  there  are  a  great  variety 
in  American  waters.  They  are  a  specially  favorite  article  of  food  in. 
the  United  States,  and,  as  a  natural  consequence,  the  catching,  cook- 
ing and  canning  of  these  luscious  dainties  have  been  brought  to  a  high 
pitch  of  perfection  in  this  country.  The  crab-catching  industry  is. 
probably,  one  of  the  most  profitable  and  interesting  occupations  of  the 
many  opened  up  to  American  enterprise.  Chesapeake  Bay  and  its  .sur- 
roundings lead  in  this  industry  in  the  States.  As  the  boats  come  ashore 
the  fish  are  carefully  assorted,  and  the  dead  crabs  thrown  out.  They 
are  then  placed  in  latticed  cars,  holding  about  two  hundred  and  fifty 
dozen,  which  are  run  into  huge  steam  tanks,  the  steam  turned  on,  and 
in  a  few  seconds  life  is  extinct,  and  the  fish  is  ready  for  the  operation 
of  the  strippers — the  shell  being  as  white,  sweet  and  dry,  and  the 
flesh  as  firm  as  it  is  possible  to  get  it.  The  strippers,  standing  be- 
fore a  trough  of  clear,  cold  water,  dexterously  remove  the  shell,  re- 
fuse, etc.,  from  the  fish,  and,  after  carefully  washing  it,  pass  it  to  the 
pickers,  who  are  ranged  at  long  tables  running  the  length  of  the 
house.  The  meat  is  here  picked  out  into  half-gallon  buckets,  and  ia 
then  carefully  examined  to  see  that  it  is  clear  of  shell,  etc.,  and  passed 
to  the  weigher.  From  the  weigher  it  goes  to  the  canning  room, 
where  it  is  packed  in  one  and  two-pound  cans,  and  is  then  passed  to 
the  process  room,  where  the  operation  of  hermetically  sealing  is  con- 
ducted. Every  can  is  afterward  examined,  to  see  that  it  is  perfect, 
and,  after  being  varnished,  labelled,  wrapped  and  packed,  is  ready 
for  market.  In  this  condition  it  will  keep  sweet  for  years  and  in  all 
climates,  and  a  ready  sale  is  found  for  it,  even  in  the  most  remote 
markets. 

CRACKERS. — These  are  hard  biscuits,  largely  used  in  the  do- 
mestic circle,  and  in  the  restaurants  throughout  the  States,  as  an  arti- 
cle of  food.  These  and  other  plain  and  fancy  biscuits  are  now  prin- 
cipally made  by  machinery.  The  mixing  of  the  dough  and  water,  the 
kneading,  rolling  out,  cutting  and  panning,  are  all  done  by  machinery  ; 
and  in  the  patent  ovens,  the  biscuits  are  placed  on  travelling  plat- 
forms, passing  through  the  various  temperatures  of  heat  (modified  to 
Buit  the  various  kinds  and  qualities) ,  in  from  five  to  forty-five  minutes, 
when  they  are  baked  and  ready  for  the  consumer. 

In  the  making  of  fancy  biscuit*,  milk,  eggs,  sugar,  butter,  lard, 


THE    GROCERS    COMPANION.  40 

flavoring  essences,  etc.,  are  used  in  considerably  varied  proportions, 
according  to  the  kind  required  ;  and,  in  every  case,  these  ingredients 
are  roughly  mingled  before  being  put  in  the  mixer.  In  the  richer 
classes  of  biscuit,  the  dough  is  soft,  and  therefore  cut  by  hand  and 
fixed  on  trays  in  common  ovens.  Cracknells  are  made  without  either 
milk  or  water  being  used,  eggs  alone  are  mixed  with  the  dough  for 
that  purpose — certain  proportions  of  butter,  sugar  and  sesquicarbon- 
ate  of  ammonia  being  added,  and  the  dough  is  baked  in  the  usual  way. 
Many  other  varieties  of  biscuit  are  rendered  light  and  spongy  by  the 
use  of  the  sesquicarbonate  of  ammonia  or  carbonate  of  soda  with  sour 
milk.  There  are  many  hundred  different  kinds  of  plain  and  fancy 
biscuit  manufactured  and  named  from  the  kind  of  flour  used,  or  the 
flavoring,  or  as  fancy  may  dictate. 

CRANBERRY. — A  small  acid  fruit  growing  in  boggy  and 
marshy  ground,  and  extensively  cultivated  in  the  regions  of  Cape  Cod, 
New  Jersey  and  Wisconsin.  The  three  varieties  recognized  in  the 
markets,  are  the  cherry,  bell  and  bugle  varieties.  The  best  ot  the 
cherry  varieties  are  very  dark  colored.  They  are  largely  used  for 
making  tarts  and  jam,  and  as  a  sauce  for  poultry.  Great  care  should 
be  taken  in  cool  weather  not  to  buy  frost-bitten  ones.  More  money 
has  been  made  and  lost  in  the  culture  of  cranberries  than  in  any  other 
fruit.  Cape  Cod  cranberries  bring  the  highest  price,  being  worth  one 
dollar  per  barrel  more  than  the  Jersey  crops.  In  the  districts  where 
the  cranberry  is  grown,  the  picking  season  is  a  perfect  bonanza  to 
every  man.  woman  or  child.  The  pickers  are  paid  seventy-five  cents 
a  bushel  for  picking  the  berries,  two  bushels  a  day  being  considered 
a  fair  day's  work,  though  expert  hands  often  gather  from  five  to 
seven  bushels. 

CRAW  FISH.— This  fish  resembles  the  lobster,  but  is  much 
smaller.  It  is  esteemed  a  very  great  delicacy,  and  is  eaten  either 
fresh  or  preserved  by  canning. 

CREAM. — The  lighter  portion  of  the  milk  which  rises  to  the 
surface  when  it  is  allowed  to  stand.  In  good,  rich  milk,  the  propor- 
tion varies  from  one-fifth  to  one-third.  Much  of  the  cream  is  taken 
from  the  milk  sold  to  storekeepers  by  dairymen,  who  supply  cream  to 
ice-cream  saloons,  and  butter  to  private  families.  The  proportion  of 
cream  in  the  milk  sold  by  different  dealers  is  easily  ascertained  by 
filling  a  bottle  or  tube  with  each,  and  letting  them  stand  undisturbed 
for  forty -eight  hours,  when  the  difference  in  color  will  clearly  distin- 
guish the  cream  from  the  milk,  and  show  the  relative  proportion  con- 
tained in  each  sample. 

CREAMERY. — An  establishment  for  the  manufacture  of  butter 
from  cream,  conducted  on  the  same  basis  as  a  cheese  factory,  the 
farmers  of  the  neighborhood  supplying  the  cream,  and  the  butter 


50  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

being  made  in  larger  quantities  and  with  greater  uniformity  than  is 
possible  in  the  private  dairy.  The  butter  so  made  is  sold  and  quoted 
us  "creamery." 

CREAM  OF  TARTAR— Also  known  as  Acid  Tartrate  of 
Potassa  (its  chemical  term)  and  Argol.  This  is  a  principle  or  ele- 
ment found  in  the  juice  of  the  grape  and  all  other  vegetable  juices ; 
and,  when  these  juices  undergo  the  process  of  fermentation,  and  the 
sugar  is  thereby  transformed  into  alcohol,  the  cream  of  tartar  or 
argol,  is  found  deposited  upon  the  inside  of  the  wine  barrels,  or  on 
the  surface  of  the  liquid  in  the  bottles — hence  the  term  "crusted,"  in 
relation  to  wines,  etc.  The  cream  of  tartar,  as  sold  in  our  stores,  is 
this  crust  or  argol  after  it  has  been  refined  ;  it  has  an  acid,  cooling 
taste,  and  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  summer  drinks  ;  i.s  an  aid  in 
raising  bread  and  cakes,  and  as  an  element  in  all  the  known  baking 
powders.  It  is  imported  from  all  wine-producing  countries,  the  best 
coming  from  Italy  and  the  South  of  France.  Cream  of  tartar  is 
almost  universally  adulterated — many  of  the  samples  containing  not 
more  than  one-third  or  one-fourth  of  the  pure  product.  Most  of  the 
articles  used  in  its  adulteration  being  insoluble  earths,  it  can  be  readily 
tested  by  boiling  it  in  water  eighty  times  its  own  bulk  ;  if  any  sedi- 
ment remains,  it  is  not  pure.  Its  sale  in  grocery  stores  has  been 
much  diminished  by  the  introduction  of  baking  powders.  Tartar 
made  from  wine  that  has  been  cleared  with  plaster  is  richest  in  tar- 
taric  acid;  while  that  formed  in  wine  that  is  cleared  with  eggs  is 
richest  in  cream  of  tartar.  The  tarter  takes  a  pinkish  or  creamy 
tinge,  as  the  wine  in  which  it  forms  is  red  or  white. 

CUCUMBERS. — The  common  cucumber  is  a  native  of  Middle 
and  Southern  Asia ;  and  both  raw  and  in  the  form  of  a  pickle  (more 
especially  the  latter) ,  is  an  important  article  of  food  in  the  United 
States  and  in  Europe.  Young  cucumbers  make  especially  delicate 
pickles,  in  which  state  they  are  known  as  gherkins. 

CURRANTS. — Small  acid  berries,  eaten  raw  as  a  dessert,  but 
more  extensively  used  in  the  making  of  jellies,  syrups,  jams  and  in 
pies  and  puddings. 

The  RED  CURUANT — Is  a  native  of  North  America,  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  is  preferred  to  either  of  the  other  descriptions  for  its  pleas- 
ant acid  juice.  It  is  especially  used  for  the  making  of  jellies  and  con- 
serves, and  is  frequently  manufactured  into  wine.  They  are  also 
dried  for  market  and  canned  in  the  green  state. 

The  WHITE  CURRANT — Is  a  variety  of  the  common  currant 
which  has  been  produced  by  cultivation.  They  are  less  acid  and  con- 
sequently more  suitable  for  eating  raw,  but  are  not  as  desirable  fof 
cooking. 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  51 

The  BLACK  CURRANT — Is  not,  as  yet,  cultivated  very  extensively 
in  this  country.  The  number  of  varieties  of  currants  in  cultivation 
is  very  great ;  they  are  propagated  by  cuttings  and  are  of  easy  cul- 
ture. It  flowers  in  April  and  fruits  in  June  and  July. 

CURRANTS  (DRIED)  .—The  dried  fruit  sold  as  ' '  currants  " 
or  "Zante  currants,"  is  generally  supposed  to  be  really  a  preserved 
currant,  but  is  in  fact  a  small-sized  grape  without  seeds,  largely  cul- 
tivated in  Zante  and  the  Grecian  archipelago.  The  dried  fruit  Avas 
originally  brought  to  England,  from  Corinth,  and  called  kt  Corinths," 
a  name  which  was  readily  changed  to  currants.  The  grapes  are 
about  the  size  of  peas,  are  very  sweet,  and  need  no  other  preparation 
than  a  thorough  drying  in  the  sun.  For  shipment,  after  the  stems 
are  removed,  they  are  placed  in  casks  and  made  into  a  solid  mass  by 
treading.  Being  dried  upon  the  ground,  currants  require  careful  wash- 
ing to  fit  them  for  use.  They  are  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  do- 
mestic cookery,  but  the  chief  demand  is  from  bakers.  The  annual 
importation  into  England  is  over  twenty  thousand  tons,  and  a  large 
quantity  is  brought  to  this  country. 

CURRY  POWDER  OR  CURRY  PASTE.— Used  exten- 

eively  in  India  and  other  eastern  countries  ;  it  is  too  highly  seasoned 
to  be  much  valued  in  other  sections  of  the  world.  It  is  composed  of 
black  and  cayenne  pepper,  and  a  variety  of  aromatic  seeds,  nutmeg, 
cinnamon.,  cloves,  etc.,  made  into  a  paste  or  powder,  with  turmeric. 
Its  composition,  like  that  of  salads,  varies  with  different  makers. 

CUSK. — A  fish  belonging  to  the  cod  family,  with  an  elongated 
body,  a-single  dorsal  fin  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  back  and 
fleshy  ventral  fins.  The  American  cusk  is  considered  a  distinct  spe- 
cies from  the  European,  and  is  also  considered  superior.  The  length  of 
the  fish  varies  from  two  to  three  feet  or  more,  and  it  weighs  from  four 
pounds  upward.  In  spring  it  is  seen  in  the  Boston  markets,  when  it 
is  less  esteemed  than  cod  ;  but  in  winter  it  brings  a  higher  price.  It 
is  caught,  salted  and  dried  in  much  the  same  manner  as  the  cod. 

CUTTLE-FISH — As  an  article  of  commerce,  is  the  bones  of 
a  sort  of  shell-fish,  placed  in  bird-cages  for  the  birds  to  whet  their 
bills  upon.  It  is  an  article  which  all  grocers  should  keep  in  stock 
who  keep  bird-food,  etc.,  as  it  is  a  small  and  profitable  item,  and  not 
liable  to  spoil.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  the  preparation  of  tooth  pow- 
ders, for  polishing  metals,  and  for  various  purposes  in  the  arts. 

DAMAGED  GOODS.— The  liability  of  many  goods  to  damage, 
en  route,  makes  it  important  for  the  dealer  to  act  cautiously  in  throw- 
ing the  blame  on  the  wholesaler  or  shipper.  Nothing  can  be  more 
unwise  than  to  receive  a  shipment  of  goods  by  freight,  and  return  a 
damaged  cheese  by  express,  or  to  return  an  entire  invoice  because 


52  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

something  in  it  is  wrong.  Write  carefully  to  the  shipper,  stating  the 
particulars,  and  say  that  such  articles  are  held  subject  to  his  orders, 
and  expense  and  trouble  will  be  saved  to  all  concerned.  Many  goods, 
especially  in  winter,  are  sent  at  the  risk  of  the  party  ordering  them, 
and  it  would  be  well  to  understand  the  whole  ground  before  making 
claims.  At  all  times  just  claims  should  be  made  promptly,  but  it  is 
very  dangerous  to  contract  the  reputation  of  making  claims  on  trivial 
grounds. 

DANDELION. — A  well-known  plant,  with  spreading,  toothed 
leaves,  which,  when  bleached,  make  a  good  salad.  The  green  leaves 
are  also  generally  used  as  greens  in  the  spring,  and  cooked  in  the 
same  way  as  spinach.  The  roots  are  frequently  roasted  and  ground 
as  a  substitute  for  coffee ;  they  also  contain  valuable  medicinal 
properties. 

DANDELION  COFFEE — Is  an  equal  mixture  of  ordinary  coffee  and 
pulverized  dandelion  root. 

DANDELION  CHOCOLATE — Is  made  by  mixing  one  part  of  com- 
mon chocolate  with  four  parts  of  powdered  dandelion  root. 

DATES — The  fruit  of  the  Date  palm  are  eaten  dried  and  can- 
died, and  form  an  important  article  of  commerce  in  all  parts  of  the 
United  States.  Their  size  and  quality  differ  greatly,  depending  not 
only  .upon  where  they  were  grown,  but  also  the  manner  in  which  they 
are  dried  and  packed.  They  should  be  chosen  large,  softish,  not 
much  wrinkled,  of  a  reddish  yellow  color  on  the  outside,  with  a 
whitish  membrane  between  the  flesh  and  the  stone.  The  Date  palm 
tree  may  be  found  growing  native  throughout  the  East  and  the 
greater  .part  of  northern  Africa,  and  which  is  cultivated  in  Spain, 
Portugal,  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  grows  to  the  height  of  from  forty  to 
eighty  feet.  Fard  dates  are  sold  very  generally  by  grocers. 

DERMESTES— Commonly  called  the  Bacon  Beetle.  The 
larva  or  eggs  of  this  insect  is  very  destructive  to  bacon  and  other 
dried  meats,  and  often  also  to  cheese.  It  is  a  worm  of  a  long  shape, 
uiperiug  towards  the  tail,  dark  brown  above,  white  beneath,  with  long 
hairs  and  two  horny  hooks  on  the  end  of  its  body. 

DEXTRINE  OR  BRITISH  GUM— Is  of  immense  value  in 
the  arts  as  a  cement.  It  was  discovered  by  accidentally  overheating 
starch,  and  its  process  of  manufacture  was  for  a  long  time  kept  secret. 
Its  chief  use,  however,  was  in  the  cotton  manufacture.  It  is  the 
standard  gum  for  postage  stamps,  though  sometimes  gum  arabic  and 
cheaper  substitutes  are  used. 

DUTCH  STANDARD— Is  now  adopted  in  determining  the 
value  of  sugars,  thereby  establishing  a  basis  on  which  the  customs  due 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  53 

on  imported  sugars  are  collected.  It  is  simply  a  test  of  color,  and  the 
standard  qualities  are  generally  arranged  iu  sealed  bottles  of  different 
degrees  of  color  up  to  the  number  of  fourteen.  The  polariscope  is 
now  recognized  as  the  most  accurate  test  of  the  value  of  sugars. 

DYES. — Dyes  are  put  up  in  convenient  packets  of  analine  colors 
for  dyeing  Easter  eggs,  and  the  grocer  will  find  it  profitable  to  keep 
them  on  sale  before  Easter. 

EGGS. — Extensively  employed  in  cake  and  pastry  making  and 
in  general  cooking.  Where  used  by  themselves  they  form  a  very  nu- 
tritious article  of  food.  Eggs  should  not  be  allowed  to  lie  too  long  on 
•one  side,  as  the  yolk  gradually  sinks  down  through  the  white  of  the 
«gg.  and  when  it  touches  the  shell  it  quickly  spoils.  For  this  reason, 
in  packing  eggs,  they  should  always  be  placed  with  the  small  end 
down.  Packed  in  this  manner,  whether  in  sawdust  or  salt,  they  may 
be  kept  for  a  considerable  time  without  spoiling.  Bad  eggs  float  in 
water,  thus  affording  an  easy  means  of  detecting  them.  Eggs  vary- 
so  much  in  size  and  weight  (varying  according  to  the  breed  of  the 
fowl) ,  that  it  is  claimed  in  justice  to  the  consumer,  they  should  be  sold 
by  weight  and  not  by  number. 

How  TO  PACK  EGGS. — It  is  estimated  that  $75,000,000  worth 
of  eggs  are  consumed  in  the  United  States  every  year,  of  which  amount 
$18.000,000  is  chargeable  to  the  city  of  New  York  alone.  The  busi- 
ness of  collecting  and  forwarding  this  immense  quantity  of  eggs  is  of 
such  proportions  that  a  large  aggregate  capital  is  invested  in  it,  and 
the  process  has  been  reduced  almost  to  a  science.  Originally,  ofcour.se, 
the  eggs  are  gathered  from  the  farm-houses  by  hucksters,  who  deliver 
them,  packed  in  boxes,  at  the  central  depots  established  by  the  large 
dealers.  At  these  points  they  undergo  a  rigid  inspection.  Only  the 
sound  eggs  are  put  down  for  shipment,  the  spoiled  article  being  of 
<:ourse  wholly  rejected,  and  the  cracked  eggs  laid  aside  and  disposed 
•of  at  a  reduced  price.  The  boxes  contain  six  layers,  each  layer  com- 
prising seven  rows  of  fourteen  eggs  each,  and  each  egg  having  the  se- 
cure occupancy  by  itself  of  a  small  pasteboard  cell.  A  box  thus 
holds  forty-nine  dozen  eggs.  The  employees  engaged  in  filling  the 
boxes  hold  every  egg  up  to  a  lighted  candle,  and  drop  it  into  its  sepa- 
rate compartment  if  good,  or  into  another  receptacle  if  it  fails  to  pass 
inspection.  The  good  egg,  thus  looked  at  against  the  light,  is  clear 
und  amber  toned,  while  the  invalid  one  is  dark  and  muddled,  sugges- 
tive of  political  disturbance  and  cheap  boarding-houses.  The  speed 
with  which  the  work  of  selection  and  packing  is  done  is  marvellous, 
and  could  not  be  attained  without  much  fracturing  of  the  goods,  save 
by  an  experienced  hand. 

The  packages  of  eggs  are  kept  in  a  cool  and  dark  apartment,  in 
which  a  temperature  of  about  30°  Fr.  is  artificially  maintained.  Thus, 


54  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

•when  the  season  arrives  at  which  the  product  becomes  scarce,  and 
would  be  hardly  obtainable  in  the  large  cities,  the  dealers  are  in  a  po- 
sition to  supply  the  market  freely  and  at  a  satisfactory  profit.  From 
Canada  and  northern  New  York  heavy  shipments  are  made  to  Bos- 
ton, while  central  aud  southern  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  New 
Jersey  supply  the  steady  and  enormous  demand  of  New  York  city. 

A  process  has  been  devised  by  which  the  freshness  of  the  egg  is 
said  to  be  maintained  for  years,  resisting  the  injurious  effects  of  cli- 
mate. It  consists  of  the  crystallization  or  desiccation  of  the  egg, 
changing  it  into  an  amber-hued  vitreous  substance,  or  consolidated 
mass  of  yolk  and  albumen,  and  materially  reducing  its  bulk.  Wheu 
wanted  for  use,  it  is  restored  to.  its  original  condition  by  adding  the 
water  which  has  been  artificially  removed.  No  salt  or  other  for- 
eign mutter,  it  is  said,  is  employed  in  this  process  ;  for  which  the  fur- 
ther merit  is  claimed  that  an  egg  ever  so  slightly  tainted  cannot  be 
treated  by  it  at  all,  and  the  wholesomeness  of  the  prepared  product 
is  thus  assured. 

EGG  CASES.— Patent  egg  casea  will  be  found  to  amply  repay  the 
extra  expense  to  egg  shippers,  by  their  superior  advantages  in  holding 
the  egg  in  position  in  packing,  thus  insuring  safe  transportation. 

EGG  PLANT. — So  named  because  the  fruit,  for  which  the 
plant  is  cultivated,  is  shaped  somewhat  like  an  egg.  The  fruit  is  of  a 
rich,  purple  color,  about  the  size  of  a  man's  head,  and  is  prepared  for 
the  table  by  frying  in  slices,  by  baking,  and  otherwise  being  used  in 
soups,  like  the  tomato,  by  the  French  aud  Italian  cooks. 

ELEME.  —  A  Turkish  word  signifying  "hand-picked,"  as 
Eleme  Figs — hand-picked  tigs. 

EPSOM  SALT. — The  common  name  for  Hydrated  Sulphate 
of  Magnesia.  An  excellent  quality  of  this  common  medicine,  uni- 
versally sold  by  grocers,  is  made  at  Baltimore  and  Philadelphia,  and 
is  also  found  in  Kentucky  and  many  of  our  Western  States.  Epsom 
Salt  is  frequently  adulterated  with  sulphate  of  soda,  the  presence  of 
which  may  be  detected  by  boiling  one  hundred  grains  of  it  in  water 
and  precipitating  it  in  a  boiling  solution  of  carbonate  of  potash.  If 
the  precipitate,  when  dry,  weighs  less  than  thirty-four  grains,  the 
adulteration  is  undoubtedly  proved. 

EVAPORATED  GOODS.— Among  the  numerous  devices- 
which  have  come  into  use  within  the  past  few  years  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  fruit,  none  seems  to  be  more  successful  than  the  process  of 
drying  apples  and  other  fruits  by  evaporation,  the  old-fashioned 
method  of  drying  in  the  sun  being  largely  superseded  by  the  new- 
process.  At  least  we  know  that  the  sale  of  evaporated  apples, 
as  one  instance,  is  rapidly  increasing  in  this  market,  while  the 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  55 

demand  for  the  old  quartered  and  sliced  dried  apples  has  almost  entirely 
dropped  off.  Evaporated  apples  command  about  twice  as  much  as 
the  old-fashioned  dried  apples.  In  fact,  it  is  difficult  to  buyers  for  the 
latter  at  any  price,  and  their  sale  is  now  limited  to  small  lots  for  the 
foreign  market,  where  a  very  cheap  article  is  wanted.  The  fruit  is 
cut  in  thin,  round  slices  and  laid  on  trays,  which  are  moved  quickly 
through  a  vertical  evaporator,  with  heated  flues,  by  means  of  wheels 
and  chains.  The  air  in  the  flues  is  so  regulated  as  to  thoroughly  dry 
the  fruit  while  passing  through,  without  materially  changing  color  or 
allowing  it  to  lose  any  of  its  natural  qualities.  The  fruit  is  neatly 
packed  in  boxes,  and  can  be  transported  any  distance  in  ordinary 
freight  conveyances.  One  bushel  of  green  apples  will  make  from  five 
to  seven  pounds  when  dried  by  evaporation.  Peaches,  berries  and 
several  kinds  of  vegetables,  have  been  treated  successfully  by  the  evap- 
orating process,  which  is  destined  to  have  an  important  influence  on 
the  preservation  of  all  our  vegetable  products. 

EXTRACT  OF  MEAT.— A  preparation  of  condensed  teef 
juices,  obtained  by  reducing  the  meat  to  a  moderate  heat  in  a  vacuum 
pan,  thus  leaving  nothing  but  the  stimulating  properties.  Liebig's 
Extract  of  Meat  is  the  most  generally  used,  but  it  is  to  many  people, 
a  very  nauseating  article,  its  taste  and  odor  being  quite  offensive  to  a 
delicate  palate.  If  a  little  butter,  a  piece  of  bread  and  plenty  of  salt 
are  put  in  the  hot  beef  tea,  this  will  be  largely  obviated. 

EXTRACTS  FOR  FLAVORING.—  Fruit  and  Vegetable 
Essences  or  Extracts  for  Flavoring,  are  matters  requiring  such  deli- 
cate and  skilful  handling,  and  so  intimate  a  knowledge  of  chemistry, 
that  the  retail  dealer  has  to  depend,  to  a  great  extent,  on  the  good 
faith  of  the  manufacturer  as  to  the  bona-fide  character  of  the  goods 
he  offers  for  sale.  The  number  of  fruit  flavorings  which  every  gro- 
cer is  obliged  to  keep,  for  hotel,  family  and  confectioners'  use,  and 
which,  in  order  to  be  successful,  must  be  absolutely  pure,  natural  fla- 
vors, comprise  the  Lemon,  Vanilla,  Nectarine,  Peach,  Orange,  Cin- 
namon, Ginger,  Nutmeg,  Rose,  Celery,  Almond,  Clove,  Peppermint 
and  Wiutergrcen.  All  of  these,  being  largely  used  for  flavoring  pur- 
poses in  the  manufacture  of  beverages,  pastry  and  confectionery,  it  is 
certain  that  if  the  extract  is  not  first-class  and  thoroughly  genuine  in 
its  character,  the  numerous  processes  the  extract  has  to  go  through 
will  deprive  it  of  all  semblance  to  its  natural  odor  and  flavor.  Many 
of  the  flavoring  compounds  offered  are  simply  artificial  essences,  man- 
factured  by  the  skill  of  the  chemist  from  the  petroleum  compounds  as 
a  basis,  without  a  particle  of  the  supposed  fruit  flavor  in  it,  but  yet 
so  skilfully  imitated  as  to  almost  defy  detection.  The  essences  as  or- 
dinarily prepared,  are  simply  the  solutions  of  the  essential  oils  of  the 
respective  fruits  and  plants  in  alcohol,  the  oil  being  added  to  the  rec- 
tified spirit  and  shaken  till  a  uniform  mixture  is  obtained ;  and  it  is 


5G  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

too  often  tlie  case  that  this  apology  for  a  iiatural  fruit  flavor  is  still 
further  diluted  by  water,  so  that  the  real  fruit  essence  contained  is 
extremely  homoeopathic  and  attenuated,  both  in  quantity  and  quality. 
The  safest  and  easiest  course  which  the  retail  dealer  can  adopt  is  to 
consult  the  pages  and  price-lists  of  the  NEW  ENGLAND  GROCER, 
where  the  most  reliable  information  concerning  the  trade,  and  the 
quotations  from  the  leading  houses,  will  guide  him  in  his  opera- 
tions satisfactorily  to  himself  and  his  customers. 

FIGS. — These  are  brought  in  a  dried  state  chiefly  from  India 
and  the  East.  Of  late  years  they  have  been  successfully  cultivated  in 
California  and  the  warmer  sections  of  the  United  States  ;  the  great  dif- 
ficulty encountered  in  its  cultivation  in  eastern  United  States  being  the 
severity  of  the  winters,  which  sometimes  kill  the  trees  as  far  south  as 
Florida.  There  are  several  varieties,  differing  widely  in  color  and 
quality,  the  best  of  which  are  the  brown  Turkey,  brown  and  white 
Ischia,  white  Marseilles  and  the  Eleme  (or  hand-picked)  Turkey  figs. 
The  best  qualities  of  figs  are  packed  with  a  few  bay  leaves  on  the  top 
of  the  box  to  exclude  insects.  "  Natural "  figs  are  those  not  com- 
pressed in  packing,  and  ^pulled"  figs  are  those  made  soft  by  knead- 
ing, and  then  pressed  into  drums  or  boxes.  The  fig  consists  of  a  pulp 
containing  a  -number  of  seeds,  enclosed  in  a  rind.  One  most  peculiar 
circumstance  is  that  it  has  no  visible  flower,  and  the  fruit  arises  im- 
mediately from  the  stem.  As  the  fig  enlarges,  a  flower  comes  to  ma- 
turity, in  concealment ;  and,  in  Eastern  countries,  the  fruit  is  much 
improved  by  a  singular  operation  called  caprifi  cation,  which  is  per- 
formed by  suspending  by  means  of  threads  over  the  cultivated  fig, 
branches  of  the  wild  fig,  which  contain  innumerable  small  insects. 
When  the  insect  develops  its  wings,  it  leaves  the  wild  fig  and  enters  the 
cultivated  one  for  the  purpose  of  laying  its  eggs.  By  this  process  it 
hastens  the  ripening  and  causes  the  nutritious  juices  to  spread.  When 
ripe  they  are  mostly  dried  in  ovens  to  preserve  them.  The  fig  tree 
yields  three  crops  annually,  but  the  winter  yield  is  of  little  value. 
During  the  last  few  years,  California  figs  have  proved  a  prominent 
item  in  the  transactions  of  the  trade  ;  but  the  importations  aggregate 
annually  about  6,000,000  pounds,  of  the  value  of  $400,000. 

FILBERTS — Are  nuts  much  esteemed  for  the  dessert,  and  are 
the  fruit  of  the  hazel  bush.  The  American  hazel  nut  is  smaller  than 
the  European.  The  round  varieties  are  called  cobnuts,  the  name  fil- 
bert only  being  applied  to  the  elongated  sorts.  Barcelona  nuts  are 
filberts  which  have  been  kiln-dried  to  increase  their  keeping  qualities. 
Filberts  are  much  used  for  dessert,  and  also  for  the  production  of  an 
oil  called  nut-oil,  of  which  they  yield  about  half  their  weight.  Nut- 
oil  is  much  used  by  artists  as  a  drying  oil,  and  is  also  employed  by 
the  makers  of  choice  varnish  and  by  druggists  as  the  basis  of  fragrant 
oils.  The  American  hazel-nut  is  smaller  than  the  European. 


THE    GROCER'S  COMPANION.  57 

• 

FIREWORKS. — Grocers  and  country  dealers  are  often  tempted 
by  the  prospective  profit  in  fireworks,  to  put  them  in  stock  about  the 
Fourth  of  July.  They  detract  from  the  attention  to  the  regular  busi- 
ness of  a  store,  are  very  dangerous  in  themselves,  and,  unless  covered 
by  payment  of  an  extra  premium  in  advance,  destroy  any  policies  of 
insurance  that  may  stand  on  the  stock  or  building.  Laws  are  gain- 
ing ground  against  their  use,  and  every  year  it  becomes  more  difficult 
and  less  profitable  to  handle  them. 

FRUIT  AUGURS — Are  instruments  for  loosening  such  arti- 
cles as  prunes  and  dried  fruits,  when  they  have  been  too  tightly 
packed. 

FRUIT  BUTTERS— As  their  name  implies,  are  preserves  of 
fruits  made  without  retaining  their  form,  but  having  a  consistency 
more  like  butter.  They  are  made  from  the  Apple,  Peach,  Plum  and 
Quince.  They  differ  from  jams  in  being  less  sweet  and  less  firm. 
They  are  usually  sold  to  the  trade  in  large,  wooden  pails,  retailing 
them  by  the  pound.  Many  inferior  goods  of  this  class  are  frequently 
made  from  damaged  fruits  mixed  with  the  lowest  grade  of  molasses. 

FRUIT  (GREEN).  Many  grocers  consider  it  advantageous 
to  add  green  fruit  to  their  general  stock,  and  the  public  begin  to  find 
out  that  they  can  purchase  it  from  the  grocer  at  a  cheaper  rate  than 
from  the  fruit  merchant.  In  these  times,  when  the  grocer  is  beset  on 
every  side  by  opposition  from  stores  and  wholesale  retailers,  etc.,  it 
behooves  him  to  look  around  for  fresh  articles  for  sale,  whereby  he  may 
make  good  his  losses.  To  those  who  have  not  already  done  so,  we 
would  say  :  Add  the  green  fruit  business  to  your  trade,  and  we  are  of 
opinion  that  you  will  not  have  cause  to  regret  it,  provided  the  busi- 
ness be  carried  on  with  care  and  discrimination,  and  only  such  arti- 
cles purchased  as  are  found  to  be  in  demand  in  their  respective 
localities. 

GALLON. — A  measure  for  dry  or  liquid  goods  containing  four 
quarts.  The  United  States  standard  gallon  contains  twenty-three 
cubic  inches,  or  equivalent  to  a  cylinder  seven  inches  in  diameter 
and  six  inches  in  height,  and  is  the  same  as  the  old  Engish  wine  gal- 
lon. The  beer  gallon  contains  two  hundred  and  eighty-two  cubic 
inches. 

GAME. — Any  wild  animal  or  bird  pursued  or  taken  by  a  sports- 
man, is  legally  considered  game — such  as  Rabbits,  Woodcocks,  etc. 
The  term  is  equally  applicable  to  animals  formerly  living  in  a  wild 
state,  but  which  may  now  be  usually  found  domesticated.  The  game 
laws  differ  in  the  various  States. 

GARLIC. — Garlic  is  a  weed  very  similar  to  the  Onion,  which, 
at  certain  seasons,  abound  in  many  pastures.  It  imparts  a  very 


58  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

strong,  rank  flavor  to  the  milk  of  cows  who  chance  to  feed  on  it,  and 
gives  a  disagreeable  taste  to  their  butter.  Some  people  (especially  the 
Dutch  and  Germans) ,  do  not  object  to  this  flavor  ;  but,  to  most  people, 
it  is  extremely  obnoxious.  Its  principal  use  in  cookery  is  to  flavor 
soups  or  stuffing  for  fowls. 

GAUGE  ROD. — An  instrument  for  measuring  the  quantity  of 
liquid  in  any  vessel,  such  as  a  barrel  or  cask.  Gauqinff  is  the  method 
of  determining,  by  actual  measurements,  the  capacity  of  any  vessel  or 
receptacle,  as  of  a  cask,  barrel,  vat  or  tank.  The  operation  may  b» 
performed,  either  by  measuring  the  dimensions  of  such  receptacle  and 
then  calculating  its  capacity  upon  geometrical  principles,  or  by  means 
of  a  gauging  rod  suitably  adjusted  for  the  purpose.  The  instrument 
usually  employed  is  a  diagonal  rod,  by  which  the  contents  of  the  cask 
are  inferred  from  its  diagonal  length,  measuring  from  the  bung-hole 
to  the  extremity  of  the  opposite  stave  at  the  head.  On  one  face  of  a 
square  rule,  generally  about  four  feet  long,  a  scale  of  inches  is  de- 
scribed for  taking  the  measure  of  the  diagonal,  while  a  scale  on  the 
opposite  face  expresses  the  corresponding  contents  of  the  cask  in 
gallons.  Although  only  approximate  results  are  given  by  this  method, 
yet,  by  the  aid  of  experience,  and  the  use  of  larger  sliding-rules  for 
calculation,  it  is  quite  possible  to  accurately  measure  the  contents  of 
casks  which  represent  a  given  standard  of  form. 

GELATINE. — Gelatine  is  made  from  various  animal  sub- 
stances, but  chiefly  from  the  softer  parts  of  the  hides,  etc.,  of  cattle, 
by  boiling  them  and  treating  them  with  steam.  It  is  chiefly  used  in 
making  jellies  and  jelly-like  desserts.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to 
get  a  strictly  pure  article,  and  this  may  be  easily  tested  by  pouring 
water  upon  the  dry  gelatine,  when,  if  pure,  the  solution  should  be 
colorless  and  odorless.  It  is  used  in  the  place  of  isinglass,  being 
much  cheaper.  Gelatine  does  not  furnish  food  sufficient  to  sustain 
life,  although  it  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  very  nutritious. 

GINGER. — Ginger  is  a  native  of  India  and  China,  but  is  now 
cultivated  extensively  in  tropical  America  and  "Western  Africa.  In 
its  commercial  form  it  consists  of  the  root  stock  of  the  Ginger  palm, 
which  grows  freely  in  moist  places  in  all  tropical  climates.  The  root 
is  gathered  when  the  stalk  withers,  and  is  immediately  scalded  in 
order  to  kill  it  and  to  prevent  sprouting,  or  it  is  washed  and  scraped. 
The  first-named  method  of  preparation  is  generally  applied  to  the 
oldest  and  most  inferior  roots,  and  produces  the  black  ginger  ;  while 
the  latter  produces  the  white  ginger  of  commerce.  The  whole  gin- 
ger is  known  in  the  trade  as  Race  ginger.  The  white  color  is  often 
heightened  by  a  chemical  process  of  bleaching,  which  impairs  the  real 
value  of  the  article.  In  China  and  India  the  ginger  is  boiled  and 
cured  in  sugar,  thus  forming  the  much-esteemed  preserve  known  a» 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  59 

conserved  or  Canton  ginger.  The  popular  medicinal  and  aromatic 
stimulant,  known  as  Jamaica  Ginger,  is  a  concentrated,  alcoholic  tinc- 
ture of  the  ginger  root.  Numerous  other  preparations  and  decoctions 
are  made  from  it — such  as  "ginger  tea,"  "ginger  beer,"  etc.  It  is 
also  used  as  a  flavoring  for  food,  and  is  largely  employed  in  medi- 
cines. Ginger  is  commonly  sold  in  the  powdered  state,  and  is 
largely  adulterated  with  starch,  wheat  flour,  mustard  husks,  etc. 
The  value  of  the  ginger  consumed  in  the  United  States  is  not  less- 
than  $166,000. 

GLAUBER'S  SALT— Or  the  Hydrated  Neutral  Sulphate  of 
Soda,  is  found  native  in  sea  water,  in  mineral  springs,  and  very 
abundantly  in  the  alkaline  soils  and  waters  of  the  western  plains  and 
mountains  of  the  United  States.  It  is  a  mild  saline  cathartic,  and 
was  formerly  much  used  in  medicine,  but  its  administration  is  now 
rarely  employed,  except  in  the  treatment  of  horses  and  cattle. 

GLUE. — Glue  is  obtained  from  the  hides  and  hoofs  of  oxen  and 
other  similar  materials.  Almost  every  kind  of  animal  matter  will 
yield  it,  and  accordingly  all  kinds  of  animal  refuse  are  made  use  of  in 
its  manufacture.  There  are  several  varieties  of  it.  "  "White  "  glue 
is  apt  to  be  considered  a  stronger  and  superior  article,  but  for  practi- 
cal use  nothing  has  been  found  so  strong  and  adhesive  as  the  clear, 
dark  "Cologne"  glue.  The  white  glue  is,  however,  preferred  for 
some  special  purposes,  such  as  joining  light  woods,  etc.,  where  a  light 
color  is  of  more  importance  than  extra  strength.  Good  glue  is  semi- 
transparent,  deep  brown  and  free  from  spots  and  clouds. 

GLUCOSE.— Many  people  regard  this  addition  to  our  sugar 
supply  with  dread,  from  the  fact  that  they  consider  it  as  an  injurious 
adulteration.  This  is  a  mistake,  for  Glucose  is  simply  the  sugar  ob- 
tained from  starch,  instead  of  from  the  cane.  There  is  no  doubt  of 
its  inferiority  for  sweetening  purposes  to  that  of  cane  sugar,  and  them 
is  also  no  doubt  but  that  it  is  used  as  a  means  of  adulterating,  or, 
more  correctly,  reducing  the  quality  of  sugar.  The  growth  of  the? 
manufacture  lias  been  of  late  years  very  extensive.  It  is  manufac- 
tured from  starch  in  the  following  Avay  :  A  mixture  of  starch  and 
water,  at  a  temperature  of  ISO"5,  is  allowed  to  flow  gradually  into  a 
large  vat  containing  water,  with  the  addition  of  one  per  cent,  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  kept  at  boiling  point.  In  about  half  an  hour  the 
starch  is  converted  into  sugar.  The  liquid  is  drawn  off,  and  the  acid 
is  then  neutralized  by  the  addition  of  chalk.  The  molasses  is  then 
drained  off  and  the  sugar  is  dried  in  a  gentle  heat  by  a  current  of  air. 
It  is  more  or  less  used  in  the  manufacture  of  all  confectionery  ;  also,  ir* 
brewing  ale  and  beer,  and  distilling  spirits,  brandy  and  wine. 

GREASE. — A  name  of  general  application  to  all  fatty  or  oily 
substances,  but  more  especially  to  those  having  some  degree  of  solid- 


€0  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

ity,  as  tallow.  It  is  employed,  to  a  great  extent,  as  a  lubricant  for 
machinery  and  wagon  wheels.  The  most  inferior  quality,  mixed  with 
tar  and  other  substances,  is  employed  for  axle-grease. 

GRIST. — Wheat  flour,  divested  of  the  coarse  bran  or  pellicle. 

GRITS. — A  name  used  to  designate  any  of  the  several  varieties 
of  grain  used  in  cooking,  such  as  Hominy  Grits,  Wheaten  Grits, 
Oaten  Grits,  etc.,  etc.  The  trade  can  obtain  them  in  pound  packa- 
ges, which  are  very  convenient.  They  are  generally  used  as  a  break- 
fast dish,  but  during  the  winter,  some  families  use  them  for  supper. 

GROATS — Are  the  grain  of  wheat,  oats  and  barley,  deprived 
•of  the  outer  coating,  and  are  used  for  preparing  gruel  for  invalids, 
-and  in  broths  and  soups. 

GROCER — Formerly  written  Grosser;  meaning  one  who  sells 
by  the  gross,  that  deals  by  wholesale. 

GUAVA. — The  Guava  tree,  of  which  there  are  about  one  hun- 
dred species,  grows  abundantly  in  tropical  America  and  the  West  In- 
dies. The  fruit  of  the  guava  is  delicious  when  fresh,  and  is  largely 
in  demand  when  made  into  jelly.  Guavas  are  a  bright  yellow  color 
and  very  fragrant.  It  is  now  cultivated  in  Florida,  and  small  lots  of 
jelly  from  that  State  have  appeared  in  our  northern  markets,  which 
were  quickly  taken. 

GUM. — An  exudation  from  trees  and  plants,  which,  dissolved 
in  water,  forming  a  transparent  mucilage,  and  is  insoluble  in  alcohol, 
•ether  and  oils.  It  is  extensively  used  in  the  arts,  manufactures  and 
medicines.  The  common  gums  are  Gum  Arabic,  Gum  Tragacanth, 
etc.,  which  are  used  in  making  adhesive  pastes.  Dextrine  [which 
see]  is  used  very  extensively  as  a  substitute  for  gum  in  making 
gummed  papers  or  mucilage. 

CHEWING  GUM. — The  original  article  formerly  sold  in  the  stores 
was  spruce  gum,  but  pure  white  parafnne  wax,  variously  flavored, 
has  of  late  years  taken  its  place  very  generally.  There  is  a  great 
trade  in  this  article.  Maine  is  the  great  spruce-gum  producing  State, 
where  it  has  become  a  most  important  industry. 

GUMBO  OR  OKRA.— A  West  Indian  plant,  although  largely 
cultivated  in  the  Southern  States  and  in  warm  countries  generally. 
Its  green  pods  are  mucilaginous,  are  excellent  in  soup  or  cooked  and 
served  with  butter.  They  are  also  frequently  made  into  pickles. 
The  seeds,  known  as  "  ambrette,"  are  much  used  by  perfumers. 

GUNNY  BAGS — Are  made  of  a  strong  fibre  which  grows  in 
India,  and  much  used  for  making  mats,  sacks  and  for  all  kinds  of 
packing. 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  61 

GUNPOWDER. — An  explosive  mixture  composed  of  ten  parts 
sulphur,  seventy-five  of  nitre  and  fifteen  of  charcoal.  Its  chief  use  is 
the  discharge  of  projectiles  from  firearms  and  in  blasting.  A  special 
license  is  required  to  sell  it,  which  may  be  obtained  from  the  muni- 
cipal authorities.  Insurance  is  also  affected  by  keeping  it  on  the 
premises,  and  an  additional  premium  should  be  paid  in  order  to  cover 
the  property  in  case  of  fire. 

HAKE. — The  American  hake,  a  fish  of  the  cod  family,  may  be 
distinguished  from  the  cod  by  having  only  two  dorsal  fins.  It  is. 
white,  reaches  a  length  of  from  one  to  three  feet,  and  is  taken  aloug^ 
the  coast  from  New  Jersey  northward.  It  is  a  valuable  fish  when 
salted,  and  is  largely  exported  from  the  British  Provinces.  The 
hake,  haddock  and  pollock  are  often  sold  as  cod  to  those  unable  to- 
distinguish  them. 

HALIBUT. — A  fish  found  from  New  York  to  Greenland,  and 
also  on  the  northern  shore  of  Em-ope.  It  reaches  a  length  of  from, 
three  to  six  feet,  and  varies  in  weight  from  one  hundred  to  five  hun- 
dred pounds.  Large  quantities  are  caught  on  George's  Bank  and 
Nantucket  Shoals  ;  it  is  also  abundant  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and  in 
the  waters  of  Nova  Scotia.  The  flesh  of  the  halibut  is  coarse  and 
dry,  but  much  esteemed  by  some.  Immense  quantities  of  the  flesh 
are  dried,  salted  or  smoked,  and  largely  consumed  in  northern  coun- 
tries. In  England  it  is  not  thought  much  of,  but  in  this  country 
brings  a  higher  price  than  cod.  Our  fresh-water  sturgeon  is  said  ta 
be  smoked  and  frequently  sold  for  halibut. 

HAY. — The  blades  of  grasses  and  the  stems  and  leaves  of  other 
plants  that  are  dried  for  fodder  for  cattle.  The  hay  crop  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  is  enormous,  and  amounted,  in  1862,  to  more  than 
25,000,000  tons.  In  1868,  the  crop  from  the  States  of  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio  and  Illinois  alone,  was  27,000,000  tons,  from  an, 
acreage  of  21,541,573,  and  valued  at  $355,000,000.  At  the  present 
time  the  yield  is  not  less  than  35,000,000  tons. 

HAZEL-NUT. — The  fruit  of  a  small  shrub  belonging  to  the 
oak  family.  The  nuts  are  small,  and  not  as  good  as  those  of  the 
European  hazel  or  filbert.  It  is  found  in  thickets,  along  borders  of 
fence-rows,  etc.,  throughout  the  United  States.  It  flowers  in  March 
and  April  and  fruits  in  September. 

HEAD  CHEESE.— Made  of  parts  of  the  head  and  feet  of 
swine,  cut  up  fine  and  pressed  into  the  form  of  a  cheese.  It  is -also 
called  Hogs'-head  Cheese. 

HEMP. — A  native  of  the  East,  but  is  now  cultivated  throughout 
Europe  and  the  United  States,  and  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture 


C2  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

of  cordage,  and  also  coarse  shirting,  sheeting  and  toweling ;  and  in  a 
coarse  cloth  called  "huckaback."  The  plant  fibres  of  manilla,  jute, 
etc.,  all  come  under  the  same  designation.  Hemp  Seed  is  an  impor- 
tant and  valuable  article  in  bird-food  ;  and,  upon  expression,  yields 
Hemp-Seed  Oil,  the  commercial  supply  of  which  comes  chiefly  from 
Russia. 

HERBS. — Herbs  dried,  are  used  for  flavoring  soups  and 
making  herb  or  medicinal  teas,  and  various  other  purposes.  They 
are  mostly  prepared  by  such  farming  communities  as  the  Shakers, 
the  Oneida  settlement.,  etc. 

HERMETICAL  SEALING.  — A  can  or  other  vessel, 
when  closed  and  sealed  against  the  possible  admission  of  air,  is  her- 
metically sealed. 

HERRING. — There  are  several  species  of  this  favorite  and 
touch-used  fish,  the  two  principal  being  that  inhabiting  Northern 
Europe  and  America,  and  that  found  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  Uni- 
-ted  States.  The  American  herring  fisheries  are  located  along  the 
New  England  coasts,  and  also  in  British-American  waters — an  im- 
portant winter  fishery  being  on  the  coast  of  Maine  and  in  the  Bay  of 
Fundy.  They  are  usually  caught  in  gill  and  scoop  nets — their  annual 
catch  amounting  to  many  hundreds  of  millions.  Herring  may  be 
«aten  fresh,  but  are  more  generally  smoked,  fried  or  pickled ;  but,  in 
whatever  form  prepared,  are  a  most  important  and  universal  element 
of  food.  Boneless  herring,  prepared  for  the  broiler  and  packed  in 
boxes  with  glass  tops,  is  now  a  quick-selling  article  in  a  grocer's 
stock.  The  quantity  of  cured  herrings  brought  in  by  American  ves- 
sels annually  exceeed  185,000  pounds,  besides  large  quantities  con- 
sumed fresh,  not  included  in  the  calculation.  The  fishing  is  carried 
on  during  the  winter  and  spring. 

The  herrings  do  not  ascend  the  rivers  like  the  alewive  and  shad. 
The  common  American  species  or  blue-back,  varies  in  length  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  inches ;  the  color  is  a  deep  blue,  tinged  with  yellow. 
It  is  generally  most  abundant  in  May,  but  is  caught  on  the  shores  of 
^New  Brunswick  during  every  month  of  the  year.  The  herring  fish- 
eries were  carried  on  by  the  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth.  The  herring 
fisheries' of 'France  date  back  to  the  eleventh  century,  and  that  of  Great 
Britain  three  hundred  years  .earlier.  The  Dutch  were  engaged  in 
this  business  for  a  time,  and  Amsterdam  became  the  great  centre  of 
the  trade.  The  herring  fishery  is  surpassed  only  by  the  cod  fishery  in 
the  value  of  its  products.  Vessels,  especially  from  Gloucester,  Massa- 
chusetts, visit  the  coasts  of  New  Brunswick,  Newfoundland,  the  Mag- 
dalen Islands  and  Labrador,  for  herrings.  The  business  is  pursued 
in  the  spring  and  winter.  An  important  fishery  is  during  the  winter 
along  the  coast  of  Maine  and  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  the  herrings  being 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  63 

preserved  frozen,  and  sold  in  the  markets  of  Portland,  Boston,  New 
York  and  other  cities.  The  chief  seats  of  the  Newfoundland  fishery 
are  Labrador,  the  Bay  of  Islands,  Bonne  Bay  and  St.  George's  Bay, 
on  the  west  coast,  and  Fortune  Bay,  on  the  south  coast.  In  the  Bay 
of  Islands  the  herring  fishery  opens  in  September  and  continues 
throughout  the  winter.  When  the  bay  is  frozen  the  fish  are  taken  in 
nets  through  holes  in  the  ice.  The  Scotch  herring  fishery  is  pursued 
along  the  north-west  and  east  coasts,  the  latter  being  the  seat  of  the 
most  productive  fishery.  Yarmouth  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  Eng- 
lish herring  fishery,  employing  two  hundred  vessels  and  two  thousand 
men.  When  pickled  and  packed  in  barrels,  herring  are  known  as 
"white"  herrings  ;  salted  and  smoked,  they  are  known  as  "red"  her- 
rings ;  "bloaters"  are  herrings  slightly  cured  and  smoked,  and  in- 
tended for  immediate  use.  The  Dutch  fisheries,  which  once  surpassed 
all  others,  have  greatly  declined,  but  Dutch  herrings  still  command 
the  highest  price  in  the  continental  markets.  The  product  of  the 
Norwegian  fishery  is  about  1,000,000  barrels  a  year.  In  most  of  the 
northern  countries  of  Europe,  large  quantities  are  annually  captured. 
On  the  Maine  coast,  great  numbers  of  the  smaller  herring  are  packed 
in  boxes,  with  foreign  labels,  as  sardines,  and  are  sold  in  American 
markets  as  the  genuine  French  sardine. 

KIPPERED  HERRING.  —  Common  Herrings,  carefully  cleaned, 
dried  and  smoked. 

HICKORY-NUT.— The  shell  of  this  nut  is  thin  but  hard,  and 
the  kernel  sweet.  The  shellbark  variety  is  the  best,  and  is  found  in 
all  parts  of  the  United  States — its  nuts  being  thinner  shelled  and 
whiter  than  the  Western  hickory,  which  bears  nuts  often  two  inches 
long  and  with  very  thick  shells.  The  wood  of  both  species  is  very 
valuable,  and  is  largely  used  for  axe-helves,  spokes,  handspikes,  etc. 

H03IINY — Is  the  grain  of  Indian  corn  broken,  with  the  hull 
removed,  and  is  prepared  for  use  by  boiling  with  water.  The  larger 
sizes  are  eaten  as  a  dinner  vegetable  ;  the  finer  product  as  a  break- 
fast dish.  [See  Indian  Corn.] 

HONEY — Is  used  for  food,  not  only  by  man  but  by  the  bees 
who  make  it.  The  composition  of  honey  varies  according  to  the  food 
of  the  bees,  their  age,  the  season,  etc.  The  wild  honey  of  Cuba  and 
the  West  Indies  is  highly  aromatic  ;  that  known  as  Clover  honey  is 
generally  less  so.  Our  chief  supplies  now  come  from  California, 
where  bee-keeping  is  conducted  on  a  large  scale,  unless  we  give  due 
credit  to  the  manufacturers  of  glucose,  who  unquestionably  have  the 
advantage  of  their  little  rivals.  Glucose,  being  the  almost  exact 
equivalent  of  honey,  can  be  mixed  with  it  without  risk  of  detection, 
and  when  properly  made  is  just  as  wholesome.  From  the  remotest 
times  honey  has  been  employed  as  food.  In  moderation  it  is  nutri- 


64  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

live  and  laxative,  but  dyspeptic  persons  have  found  that  it  aggravates 
their  symptoms.  Cases  are  oil  record  where  poisonous  honey  has 
produced  madness,  in  consequence  of  bees  extracting  honey  from 
poisonous  plants.  California  produces  a  large  amount  of  honey. 
The  total  production  of  honey  in  the  United  States  is  about  55,000,000 
or  57,000,000  pounds  annually,  obtained  from  2,050,000  hives  of 
bees,  kept  by  75,000  persons.  Of  this  product  about  4,000,000 
pounds  is  exported,  realizing  $1,200,000.  Honey  is  often  adultera- 
ted or  mixed  with  solutions  of  cheap  sugars,  especially  the  uncrystal- 
lizable  or  grape  sugars  ;  and  starch,  chalk,  gypsum  and  pipe  clay  are 
also  added  to  increase  its  weight. 

ARTIFICIAL  HONEY — Is  produced  in  considerable  quantities,  and 
usually  consists  of  a  solution  of  glucose,  to  which  is  added  eggs  and 
frequently  cream  of  tartar.  Flavorings  of  various  kinds  are  employed, 
and  a  small  quantity  of  genuine  honey  is  sometimes  used  to  improve 
the  flavor. 

HOPS. — The  hop  plant  is  found  wild  in  America,  Europe  and 
Asia.  It  is  largely  cultivated  in  the  United  States,  chiefly  in  the 
States  of  New  York  and  Wisconsin.  Its  qualities  of  preserving  beer 
from  fermentation  and  imparting  an  agreeable  bitter  to  it,  are  prover- 
bial. Extremely  valuable  as  a  medicine,  it  has  a  tonic,  stimulant, 
sedative  and  narcotic  influence,  whether  taken  internally  or  applied 
externally  in  fomentations,  etc.  They  are  also  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  yeast.  The  production  in  the  United  States  has  increased 
very  largely  and  rapidly,  the  last  returns  showing  an  excess  of 
30,000,000  pounds. 

The  hop  has  been  cultivated  in  Germany  since  the  ninth  cen- 
tury. The  English  first  engaged  in  its  cultivation  during  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.,  about  the  year  1524.  In  the  county  of  Kent,  Eng- 
land, thirty  thousand  acres  are  devoted  to  hop  cultivation.  The  Bel- 
gian hops  have  a  good  reputation,  but  those  of  Bavaria  arc  considered 
the  best  of  all.  Hops  are  subject  to  blight  of  various  kinds,  from 
mould  or  rust  and  the  devastation  of  an  aphis  or  louse.  This  insect 
probably  destroys  more  than  half  the  crops,  and  much  of  the  remain- 
der is  lost  by  unfavorable  seasons  and  other  causes.  When  the  hops 
are  mature,  the  poles  are  pulled  up  with  the  vines  hanging  to  them, 
and  women  and  children  gather  the  strobiles  (the  valuable  portiou  of 
the  plant) ,  which  are  placed  in  the  kilns,  called  hop  oasts,  in  which 
they  are  dried.  Fumes  of  burning  sulphur  are  admitted  to  the  hops 
while  drying,  by  which  they  are  partially  bleached.  They  are  then 
packed  tightly  in  bags  or  packets,  with  the  aid  of  a  press,  and  the  par- 
cels are  made  so  compact  that  they  may  be  cut  into  blocks  with  a 
knife.  The  bales  may  be  kept  for  .years  in  a  dry.  airy  place.  The 
Bavarians  allow  the  hops  to  dry  in  the  sun.  thinking  the  aroma  is 
thus  best  preserved.  The  quality  of  hops  is  judged  by  the  weight  of 


TEE    GROCERS  COMPANION.  65 

the  bags,  the  heavier  samples  having  more  of  the  lupulene  or  hop 
dust.  Hop  vines  have  of  late  years  been  used  as  a  stock  for  paper 
makers.  The  tincture  of  hops  is  a  preparation  in  which  the  alcohol 
it  contains  is  more  active  than  the  hops. 

HOREHOUND.— A  plant  from  the  south  of  Europe  and  the 
East,  about  a  foot  high,  bushy,  with  round,  wrinkled  leaves.  It  has 
an  aromatic  but  not  very  agreeable  smell.  The  syrup  is  candied,  and 
has  become  a  very  popular  and  effective  remedy  for  coughs  and  other 
affections. 

HORSE-RADISH. — A  plant  having  roots,  the  odor  and  taste 
of  which  is  very  pungent.  It  grows  in  damp  meadows  in  the  middle 
and  south  of  Europe,  and  is  naturalized  in  most  localities  in  the  Uni- 
ted States.  It  is  cultivated  for  its  root,  which  is  washed,  scraped  and 
grated,  and  then  mixed  with  salads  or  used  as  a  condiment  with 
meats.  It  is  also  used  in  medicine  as  a  stimulant,  and  as  a  remedy 
for  indigestion.  The  oil  extract  -is  very  similar,  if  not  identical, 
with  that  of  mustard.  Difficulty  is  experienced  in  eradicating  it  from 
the  ground  in  which  it  has  once  been  planted,  as  nearly  every  part  of 
the  root  will  grow.  When  shred  or  ground  into  powder,  it  is  packed 
in  bottles  for  the  trade. 

HUCKLEBERRY,  WHORTLEBERRY  OR  BLUE- 
BERRY. — Names  applied  somewhat  indiscriminately  to  various 
species  of  the  same  fruit.  An  edible  berry,  varying  in  size  from 
currants  to  small  grapes,  and  in  color  from  light  blue  to  black.  They 
ripen  from  early  in  June  to  the  close  of  August ;  are  picked  in  enor- 
mous quantities  and  used  as  dressed  fruit  for  jellies  and  for  pies  and 
puddings.  They  are  very  rarely  cultivated,  but  grow  wild  in  abun- 
dance, and  generally  in  mountainous  regions. 

INDIAN  CORN. — Indian  Corn  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of 
food-producing  plants.  It  is  native  to  America,  and  has  always  been 
a  staple  article  of  food  here.  It  cannot  be  successfully  grown  in 
England,  because  of  the  dampness  of  the  climate.  The  varieties  of 
corn  have  been  much  improved  and  modified  by  cultivation,  and  the 
higher  varieties  have  nearly  reached  perfection.  The  more  improved 
varieties  contain  less  oil  but  more  starchy  material.  Rice  corn  con- 
tains the  most  oil ;  Tuscarora  most  starch  and  no  oil.  The  mauy 
varieties  of  Sugar  or  Sweet  Corn  furnish  in  their  green  state  a  nutri- 
tious and  delicious  food  ;  the  unripe  grains  then  contain  large  propor- 
tions of  sugar,  which  is  converted  into  starch  as  the  grain  ripens. 
The  ripe  corn  may  also  be  eaten  in  a^  parched  state,  as  it  is  in  some 
Eastern  countries,  but  with  us  it  is  used  in  the  form  of  meal.  The 
entire  grain  is  ground  and  sold  as  "  unbolted  "  meal ;  when  it  is  sifted 
and  the  ,>bran  removed,  it  is  known  as  "  bolted  "  meal.  When  the 
corn  is  finely  broken  or  crushed  it  is  known  as  Samp^  and  is  used  in  the 


66  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

same  manner  as  Hominy.  Hulled  Corn  is  prepared  by  soaking  the 
grain  in  lye,  to  enable  the  hulls  to  be  removed  ;  it  is  then  thoroughly 
soaked  in  water,  and  afterwards  boiled  until  tender.  Corn  enters 
largely  into  the  manufacture  of  whiskey,  and  a  great  many  distilleries 
are  employed  in  its  production. 

INDIGO — Is  a  vegetable  dye-stuff  of  much  value,  native  to 
this  country,  Asia  and  Africa.  There  are  over  two  hundred  species, 
many  of  which  yield  the  indigo  of  commerce.  It  is  used  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  inks,  for  laundry  purposes,  and  also  in  dyeing  woollen  and 
other  fabrics.  The  best  quality  will  float  upon  water,  is  glossy,  and, 
when  rubbed  by  the  nail,  produces  a  purple-red  streak.  When  the 
streak  is  dull  and  wrinkles,  the  quality  is  poor.  Good  Indigo  may  be 
known  by  its  lightness,  which  indicates  its  freedom  from  earthy  im- 
purities, by  its  not  parting  from  its  coloring  matter  readily  when 
tested  by  drawing  a  streak  with  it  on  a  white  surface  ;  but,  above  all, 
by  the  purity  of  the  color  itself.  .  Indigo  is  insoluble  in  water,  until 
it  is  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  when  it  becomes  the  Indigo  Blue 
used  in  the  laundry. 

INDIAN  MEAL. — The  flour  ground  from  Indian  Corn  or 
Maize.  It  is  universally  employed  in  making  Corn  bread  and  Johnny 
cake,  and  in  the  fomi  of  mush  or  hasty  pudding. 

INK. — The  composition  of  the  ink  used  by  the  ancients  is  not 
well  understood,  but  it  is  believed  that  their  ink  far  excelled  ours  in 
blackness  and  durability.  The  necessary  elements  of  ordinary  black 
ink  are  gall,  sulphate  of  iron  (known  generally  as  green  vitriol  or 
green  copperas)  and  gum.  The  gum  is  added  that  the  coloring  mat- 
ter may  be  retained,  and  to  prevent  the  mixture  from  becoming  too 
fluid. 

INSECTS. — Insects  of  various  sorts  trouble  the  grocer,  and 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  stores  free  from  them,  as  they  de- 
stroy stock  and  drive  away  customers  at  the  same  time.  Cleanliness 
is  the  best  prevention.  Persian  Insect  Powder  is  cheap  and  effective 
for  many  of  them,  and  Boi-ax  will  keep  off  ants  and  other  small  classes, 
but  without  scrupulous  cleanliness,  no  permanent  relief  can  be  expected. 

INSURANCE. — No  dealer  deserves  credit  who  does  not  keep 
his  goods  insured.  Every  careful  dealer  will  be  as  certain  to  keep  up 
his  insurance  as  he  is  to  lock  up  his  store,  and  will  avoid  keeping 
oils,  alcohols,  gunpowder  or  matches  on  the  premises,  in  larger  quan- 
tities than  are  permitted  by  his  policy,  without  making  special  pro- 
visions and  paying  the  extra  premium. 

IRISH  MOSS. — A  marine  plant  brought  from  Ireland,  which 
is  used  us  a  basis  for  jellied  puddings  and  mould  custards,  and  is  spe- 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  67 

.daily  suitable  for  the  diet  of  invalids  and  children.     It  is  also  found 
on  the  coasts  in  this  ceuntry. 

ISINGLASS — 13  really  a  gelatine  prepared  from  the  swim- 
bladder  of  the  sturgeon  or  cod.  The  best  is  that  brought  from  Rus- 
sia, where  great  quantities  are  made  from  the  fish  from  the  North  and 
Caspian  Seas.  It  dissolves  readily  in  boiling  water,  and  is  extremely 
useful  in  the  preparation  of  jellies,  blancmange,  gum-drops  and  va- 
rious articles  of  confectionery.  Fish  glues  or  the  coarse  kinds  of 
isinglass,  are  employed  in  various  cements  and  sticking  plasters.  It 
is  also  used  to  clear  coffee.  Japanese  Isinglass  is  prepared  from  a 
seaweed.  Russia,  Brazil  and  the  United  States  furnish  the  greater 
portion  of  commercial  Isinglass.  Gelatine  is  generally  superseding 
it  in  cookery  on  account  of  its  lower  price. 

GLUTEN — The  nutritious  parts  of  Wheat  and  other  grains. 
The  claims  made  for  most  prepared  wheat-foods,  especially  for  in- 
fants is,  that  they  are  pure  gluten  and  free  from  the  starch  of  the 
grain,  but  the  exact  contrary  is  generally  true. 

GOODWILL. — In  purchasing  or  selling  a  store,  a  good  rule 
for  estimating  its  value  is  to  allow  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  their  orig- 
inal cost  for  fixtures,  and  take  the  net  profits  of  the  previous  six  or 
twelve  months  as  the  value  of  the  goodwill. 

GOOSEBERRIES. — Grown  in  any  garden  soil,  they  are  much 
used  for  making  preserves  and  jenies,  and  also  in  the  manufacture  of 
wine  and  vinegar.  Their  main  use,  however,  is  in  the  green  state, 
when  the  peculiar  tartness  ma-kes  them  palatable  in  pies  and  tarts. 
When  ripe  it  is  a  good  dess^t  fruit.  It  should  be  found  canned  on 
all  grocers'  shelves. 

GRACE  (DAYS  OF)  .—Three  days  are  generaUy  allowed  for 
payment  of  a  note  after  the  date  on  which  it  falls  due.  Banks,  in 
calculating  discounts,  include  the  days  of  grace  and  also  the  day  on 
which  the  note  is  made — that  is,  thirty-four  days  on  a  thirty-days' 
note.  In  some  States  all  drafts,  even  those  drawn  at  sight,  are  sub- 
ject to  this  allowance  of  three  days.  In  Pennsylvania  and  New  York 
sight  drafts  have  no  days  of  grace.  In  Massachusetts  they  have. 

GRAIN. — A  single,  small,  hard  seed,  such  as  a  grain  of  corn 
or  wheat ;  hence  taken  to  express  the  whole  class  of  eatable  seeds. 
It  also  applies  to  the  parts  composing  any  bulk  substance,  such  as  a 
grain  of  sugar.  Grain  is  the  smallest  weight  used  in  compounding 
drugs,  etc.  Seven  thousand  of  such  grains  are  required  to  make  one 
pound  avoirdupois. 

GRAPES. — This  fruit  is  an  especial  favorite  in  the  United 
States.  The  European  grape  is  not  successfully  cultivated  in  any 


68  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

section  of  this  country  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  ;  but  in  Califor- 
nia it  is  of  easy  growth,  and  the  grape  culture  there  is  assuming  vast 
proportions.  There  are  four  described  species  of  the  American  grape, 
from  which  all  the  numerous  varieties  seen  in  our  markets  and  at 
horticultural  fruit  shows,  have  been  derived  by  cultivation.  Among 
the  best  varieties  for  table  grapes  we  would  mention  the  Concord,  Del- 
aware, lona,  Hartford  Prolific,  Isabella,  Catawba  and  Diana ;  of 
these,  the  Concord,  Delaware  and  Catawba  take  the  lead.  The  fruit 
is  largely  consumed  as  it  ripens,  and  also  in  making  wines  and  rai- 
sins. The  dried  currants  of  commerce  are  a  small  grape  peculiar  to 
the  Islands  of  Greece.  California  grapes  are  now  the  finest  in  our 
markets,  and  vine  culture  is  spreading  all  over  the  United  Stairs. 

GRAMME — Represents  the  French  unit  of  weight,  being  equiv- 
alent to  15.4325  grains  Troy,  or  about  12-23  of  a  drachm  avoirdu- 
pois. Its  weight  in  distilled  water  at  the  temperature  of  maximum 
density  of  4°  C.  or  39.2°Fr.,  is  a  cubic  centimetre.  A  kilogramme 
or  1,000  gramme  equals  2.6793  pounds  Troy,  or  2.2046  pounds 
avoirdupois,  often  accepted  as  one  hundred  weight  with  4,000  kilo- 
grammes to  the  ton,  allowing  for  a  slight  deficiency. 

GRASS  SEED. — A  term  generally  applied  to  Timothy  seedr 
although  it  may  be  applied  to  the  seed  of  any  grass.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  of  all  crops  for  the  production  of  hay.  It  grows  from 
two  to  four  feet  high,  the  flowers  arranged  on  a  single  spike,  one  head 
to  each  stem.  Large  quantities  of  seed  are  raised  in  Illinois  and 
Wisconsin,  and  shipped  to  the  East, 

JAMS. — Preserves  made  by  boiling  fruits  together  with  water 
and  sugar,  and  generally  understood  to  be  done  without  regard  to  the 
preservation  of  the  shape  of  the  fruit ;  in  which  way  it  is  different 
from  preserved  fruits,  which  retain,  in  some  measure,  their  original 
form,  and  from  jellies  which  are  made  much  more  solid.  Jams  have 
of  late  years  become  very  important  articles  in  the  grocer's  business. 

JARS. — Glass  or  earthen-ware  receptacles  for  holding  or  con- 
taining liquids  or  preserves.  The  ordinary  glass-preserving  jars 
should  be  put  into  stock  by  the  grocer  about  the  middle  of  May,  be- 
fore the  early  berries  arrive.  They  continue  in  demand  until  all  the 
fresh  fruits  are  out  of  market. 

JELLIES. — The  juice  of  fruits  or  meats,  boiled  and  thickened 
to  a  consistency  between  fluid  and  solid.  Jelly  is  made  from  nearly 
all  fruits,  and  is  put  on  the  market  in  many  forms,  but  generally  in 
glass  tumblers.  Currant  appears  to  be  the  popular  flavor.  Almost 
all  the  jellies  in  the  market  are  of  artificial  manufacture,  and  are 
made  with  the  cheapest  substances  obtainable  to  thicken  them,  with 
just  sufficient  sugar  and  fruit  to  give  them  a  palatable  taste.  Gela- 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  69 

tine  is  the  base  generally  used  in  these  manufactures,  flavored  by  the 
various  extracts,  many  of  these  also  being  artificial,  and  are  then  la- 
belled currant,  strawberry,  etc.,  according  to  the  special  demand  at 
the  time. 

JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE.— The  tubers  of  a  species  of 
sunflower,  similar  in  appearance  to  potatoes  ;  they  have  a  sweetish 
taste  when  boiled,  are  watery,  and  not  as  nourishing  as  potatoes. 
They  are,  however,  quite  palatable  when  properly  prepared,  and 
make  excellent  soup.  They  are  usually  pickled  or  eaten  with 
vinegar. 

JORDAN  ALMONDS.— The  best  grade  of  sweet  almonds,  of 
a  long,  oval  shape,  grown  at  Malaga  and  other  Spanish  ports.  [See 
Almonds.] 

JUTE. — The  material  from  which  twine,  bagging,  mats,  etc., 
are  made.  All  the  sugar  and  rice,  pepper,  ginger,  cinnamon,  gums, 
dye-stuffs,  and  many  other  commodities  of  Indian  produce,  come  to  us 
in  gunny -bags  made  from  jute. 

KEG. — A  small  barrel  or  cask.  Coopers,  in  various  parts  of 
the  country,  have  long  made  five-ga  lion  kegs  which  only  hold  four  and 
a  half  gallons,  in  order  to  avoid  the  local  or  state  taxes  on  sales  of 
liquor  in  quantities  of  five  gallons  or  over.  Manufacturers  of  many 
articles  have  put  them  up  in  short  packages,  and  it  is  no  longer  safe 
to  accept  kegs  as  containing  five,  ten  or  twenty  gallons,  without 
gauging  them  to  see  how  much  they  hold. 

KEROSENE. — Kerosene  may  be  considered  one  of  the  most 
formidable  rivals  to  the  use  of  coal  gas  as  a  source  of  illumination  ia 
the  home  circle.  When  properly  refined  it  is  nearly  or  quite  colorless 
in  transmission,  and  is  at  present  obtained  in  immense  quantities  al- 
most exclusively  from  petroleum  ;  though  in  past  times  it  has  been, 
and,  to  a  small  extent  even  now,  is  produced  from  bituminous  coal, 
shale,  asphalt,  wood,  resin  and  various  oils — especially  Menhadea. 
Though  originally  brought  into  use  in  Great  Britain  more  than  a  cen- 
tury since,  both  for  illuminating  and  lubricating  purposes,  and  also  in 
medicine,  Kerosene  oil  did  not  make  its  appearance  in  the  United 
States  until  1854,  when  the  first  factory  was  built  upon  Newtown 
Creek,  L.  I. ,  opposite  New  York  city.  This  establishment  obtained  its 
sources  of  supply  from  the  bog-head  coal  of  Scotland,  the  cannel  coal 
of  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  western  coal  mines.  Trinidad  pitch,  candle  tar 
and  numerous  other  substances.  Shortly  afterwards  other  factories 
were  founded  in  Ohio,  Kentucky  and  Pennsylvania,  in  the  midst  of  the 
coal  regions  of  the  United  States,  and  the  demand  exceeded  the  sup- 
ply to  such  an  extent  that  the  genius  and  enterprise  of  the  country 
was  awakened  in  the  investigation  and  promotion  of  this  new  and 


70  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

important  industry.  The  first  boring  for  petroleum  oil  wells  recorded,, 
took  place  in  Pennsylvania,  Venango  Co.,  in  August,  185(J  ;  and, 
from  that  time  to  the  present,  the  excitement  has  continued  to  en- 
hance and  spread  abroad,  until,  at  this  moment,  it  far  exceeds  ia 
magnitude,  in  amount  of  capital  and  labor  employed,  and  in  commer- 
cial importance,  any  other  source  of  industry  in  the  known  world. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  more  fortunes  have  been  made  and  lost,  more 
gambling  has  taken  place  in  the  production  and  sale  of  this  oil,  than 
even  during  the  celebrated  "South-Sea"  bubble  of  England,  or  the 
wildest  "wild-cat"  operations  of  the  stock  exchanges  of  New  York 
and  its  sister  cities.  Fully  seven-eighths  of  the  petroleum  of  com- 
merce is  obtained  from  the  "oil-region  "  of  Pennsylvania  ;  though  new 
and  extensive  deposits  are  constantly  being  discovered  in  Western 
Virginia,  Ohio,  Kentucky,  Canada  and  Southern  California,  as  well 
as  in  sections  of  Europe,  Asia  and  the  East  Indies. 

Crude  petroleum,  as  our  readers  probably  know,  furnishes  a 
large  number  of  valuable  products  to  the  commercial  world,  which 
need  not  be  enumerated  here — more  than  a  dozen  of  those  products 
finding  a  prominent  place  in  our  national  tariff;  but  the  Kerosene, 
after  it  has  been  extracted  from  its  source,  has  to  undergo  a  large 
number  of  processes  before  it  is  eligible  for  a  place  in  our  list  of 
marketable  articles.  In  view  of  the  dangerous  character  of  much  of 
the  oil  in  use,  the  majority  of  the  states  of  this  country  have  passed 
laws  requiring  that  all  oil  sold  within  their  boundaries  should  be  sub- 
mitted to  one  crucial  test  to  determine  its  quality — and  that  is  the 
flash-test.  There  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  value 
of  the  flash-test  in  determining  the  safety  of  the  oil ;  but  common 
sense  has  dictated,  and  the  public  generally  have  acquiesced  in  the 
rule  that  the  higher  the  flashing  point  the  greater  is  the  safety  in  the 
use  of  the  oil.  100°  is  far  too  low,  120°  is  a  very  moderate  aver- 
age, and  140°  is  a  point  at  which  the  safety  and  illuminating  power 
of  the  oil  maybe  assured.  In  the  majority  of  the  states  the  test  has 
been  fixed  at  110°  ;  in  a  few  others  it  has  been  raised  to  120°  ;  but  in 
Michigan  alone  it  has  reached  the  maximum  of  140°.  There  is  hope, 
however,  that  in  a  short  time  the  general  test  may  be  raised  to  that 
standard,  as  universal  experience  has  proved  that,  with  the  test  at 
140°,  there  is  no  fear  of  accident  from  its  use.  If  this  rule  were  only 
generally  established,  it  would  necessarily  effectually  do  away  with 
most,  if  not  all,  the  cheaper  and  impure  oils,  and  teach  the  public  a 
valuable  lesson  that  a  pure  article  is  by  far  the  cheapest  in  the  long 
run.  A  Mr.  Ditman  has  patented  a  process  to  reduce  petroleum  to 
the  density  of  a  solid,  in  order  to  facilitate  and  cheapen  the  cost  of 
transportation  to  distant  markets. 

LABELS. — Every  year  shows  an  improvement  in  the  charac- 
ter, style  and  appearance  of  the  labels  on  all  kinds  of  grocer's  shelF 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  71 

goods  ;  and,  by  a  judicious  purchase  of  suitable  packages,  and  a  skil- 
ful arrangement  on  the  shelves,  the  appearance  of  a  store  can  be 
vastly  improved.  Some  standard  goods  are  put  up  with  very  plain 
and  unsightly  labels — generally  the  original  ones  in  which,  a  quarter 
or  half  a  century  since,  they  were  first  sold  ;  but  poor  labels,  and  es- 
pecially slovenly-looking  ones,  usually  indicate  corresponding  want 
of  care  in  putting  up  the  contents. 

LAMP  BLACK. — Soot  produced  by  burning  resin,  turpentine, 
pitch,  oil  or  other  substances,  in  such  a  way  that  volumes  of  smoke 
are  formed  and  collected  in  proper  receptacles.  Lamp-black  is  used 
principally  in  the  manufacture  of  paints,  blacking  and  marking  inks. 
Its  quality  depends  chiefly  upon  its  lightness  and  the  intensity  of  its 
color. 

LAMPS  AND  LAMP-WICKS.— Receptacles  in  which  oU  is 
burned  by  means  of  a  wick,  and  used  as  an  illuminating  power. 
There  was  a  time  when  lamps  seemed  destined  to  be  entirely  superse- 
ded by  the  use  of  gas  ;  but  of  late  years,  in  consequence^of  the  high 
charge  for  gas,  and  the  great  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  kero- 
sene, as  well  as  the  construction  and  style  of  the  lamps  themselves, 
they  have  become  more  popular  than  ever  before,  and  many  that  for- 
merly used  gas  have  now  adopted  kerosene  in  preference.  The  Ar- 
gand  lamp,  with  its  circular  wick,  through  which  a  current  of  air 
passes,  was  the  first  great  novelty,  as  applied  to  kerosene  lamps 
(though  invented  more  than  one  hundred  years  since)  ;  and  a  still 
more  recent  invention  is  the  flat  double-wick  lamp,  which  came  into 
vogue  some  three  or  four  years  ago,  is  of  great  service  in  the  store. 
Grocers  who  adopt  this  system  of  lighting  should  take  care  to  have 
only  the  best  lamps  and  the  finest  oil,  and  keep  them  in  the  very  best 
condition,  as  no  stock  needs  so  much  light  to  show  it  off  as  the  gro- 
cer's. But  a  most  decided  improvement  on  kerosene  lamps,  or  any 
other  description  of  light,  would  be  to  close  the  store  earlier,  and  so 
dispense  with  their  use — a  system  which  would  become  much  more 
general  among  tradesmen,  if  the  expense  of  the  light,  the  injury  done 
to  the  stock,  and  the  loss  or  waste  of  time  were  taken  into  consider- 
tion,  and  compared  with  the  small  sales  made  after  seven  o'clock. 

WHY  LAMPS  EXPLODE. — All  explosions  of  petroleum  lamps  are 
caused  by  the  vapor  or  gas  which  collects  in  the  space  above  the  oil. 
Of  course  the  lamp  at  first  contains  no  gas,  but,  immediately  on 
lighting  the  lamp,  the  consumption  of  oil  begins,  leaving  a  gradually 
increasing  space  for  the  gas  to  form,  which  increases  in  volume  as 
the  oil  is  burnt,  and  after  a  time  will  accumulate  a  sufficient  quantity 
to  cause  an  explosion,  if  brought  into  immediate  contact  with  any 
flame.  The  gas  in  a  lamp  will  explode  only  when  ignited.  In  this 
respect  it  is  like  gunpowder.  Cheap  or  inferior  oil  is  necessarily  the 
most  dangerous,  from  the  presence  of  the  earthy  impurities  which  it 


72  THE    GROCEKS    COMPANION. 

contains  in  excessive  quantity.  The  flame  is  communicated  to  the 
whole  in  the  following  manner  :  The  wick-tube  in  the  lamp-burner  is 
made  larger  than  the  wick  which  is  to  pass  through  it.  It  would  not 
do  to  have  the  wick  work  tightly  in  the  tube  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is 
essential  that  the  wick  should  move  up  and  down  with  perfect  ease. 
In  this  way  it  is  unavoidable  that  a  certain  space  in  the  tube  is  left 
along  the  side  of  the  wick  sufficient  for  the  flame  from  the  burner  to 
pass  down  into  the  lamp  and  explode  the  same.  Many  things  occur 
to  cause  this,  which  may  be  avoided  by  exercising  proper  care,  and 
if  the  following  precautions  are  taken,  fully  seven-eighths  of  the  acci- 
dents may  be  prevented  :  1st. — Do  not  hold  or  stand  the  lamp  in  a, 
direct  draught.  2d. — Never  take  the  lamp  up  quickly,  or  violently 
move  it  through  the  passing  currents  of  air — as  in  going  up  or  down 
stairs  rapidly.  In  these  instances  the  mischief  is  done  by  the  move- 
ment of  the  air  down  the  lamp  chimney,  or  by  suddenly  checking  the 
flame.  3d. — Never  extinguish  the  light  by  blowing  down  the  chimney. 
4th. — Never  use  a  broken  chimney.  5th. — Never  use  a  small-size  wick 
in  a  large  burner.  6th. — Never  use  a  defective  or  worn-out  burner, 
but  throw  it  away  and  replace  it  with  a  new  one. 

LAMP-WICKS. — Strips  of  cotton  webbing,  of  various  widths,  for 
use  in  lamps.  They  are  bought  by  the  dealer  in  the  gross,  assorted 
in  sizes,  and  usually  retailed  by  him  by  the  piece. 

LARD. — The  oily  part  of  hogs'  fat  gathered  from  the  tissue  by 
boiling  or  rendering.  The  best  lard  is  obtained  from  the  fat  sur- 
rounding the  kidneys,  and  should  rightly  be  the  only  material  used  ; 
but  the  lard  of  commerce  (even  when  presumably  pure)  is  derived 
from  the  fat  of  the  entire  animal.  Pure  lard  should  be  firm  and 
white,  and  free  from  titste  or  smell.  To  render  the  lard  more  firm, 
.and  give  it  a  whiter  appearance,  as  well  as  to  increase  its  weight,  va- 
rious adulterating  substances  are  added.  Tallow,  stearine,  mutton- 
suet,  potato  starch  and  lime,  are  used  to  adulterate  it  so  as  to  make 
it  more  firm.  Alum  is  added  to  increase  its  whiteness.  Water  is 
also  used,  from  twelve  to  fifteen  per  cent,  of  its  weight  being  added. 
The  amount  of  adulterating  material  is  often  as  high  as  twenty-five 
per  cent.  It  is  put  up  in  kegs,  barrels  and  tierces,  and  also  in  tin 
cans,  in  quantities  of  two,  five  and  ten  pounds  weight.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  simple  test  for  detecting  water  in  lard : — Fill  a  clean  glass  , 
bottle  with  lard,  leaving  out  the  cork  ;  place  it  about  six  inches  from 
the  fire,  allowing  the  lard  to  melt  slowly  without  boiling,  when  the 
water  will  sink  to  the  bottom  and  the  lard  will  rise  ;  you  will  then 
discover  the  amount  of  water  in  the  fraudulent  article.  Should  the 
lard  not  settle  clear,  it  is  conclusive  evidence  that  it  is  also  adultera- 
ted with  alkali,  thus  actually  making  a  soap  of  it.. 

New  tierces  will  absorb  from  two  to  three  pounds  when  filled 
with  hot  lard,  and  if  they  weigh  over  that  amount  the  grocer  should 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  73 

claim  that  allowauce  for  tare.  Frequently  honest  packers  have  much 
trouble  with  tares.  There  are  instances  where  the  heads  are  changed, 
and  consequently  the  weights  differ.  It  is  well  to  have  the  weight 
marked  both  on  the  side  and  cover,  or  head  and  bilge.  The  quality 
of  lard  differs  much  with  various  houses. 

Lard  is  extensively  used  in  cooking  articles  of  food,  and  in  vari- 
ous culinary  operations  ;  it  is  the  chief  material  used  by  pharmacists 
in  making  ointments  and  cerates.  When  mixed  with  rosin,  it  is  an 
excellent  application  for  the  preservation  of  leather  and  for  lubrica- 
ting pumps  and  similar  machines,  as  it  preserves  the  metal  from  cor- 
rosion. When  used  in  making  soap,  the  rosin  keeps  the  lard  from 
getting  rancid.  The  production  of  lard  in  this  country  is  more  than 
280,000,000  pounds  per  annum ;  the  exports  from  this  country  to 
Europe  exceeding  190,000,000  pounds  annually,  of  the  value  of 
$25,000,000. 

LARD  CHEESE. — Lard  cheese  is  thus  prepared  in  New  York 
and  elsewhere  in  the  United  States :  The  skimmed  milk  is  poured 
into  a  large  cheese  vat,  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  buttermilk, 
which  has  just  been  drained  from  the  butter.  Three  hundred  pounds 
weight  of  fresh  milk  are  then  poured  into  a  large,  tin  bucket,  beside 
which  is  another  tin  bucket  of  the  same  size,  containing  one  hundred 
pounds  of  snow-white  lard,  that  has  undergone  a  steam-refining  pro- 
cess, which  removes  its  natural  odor  and  renders  it  pure  and  tasteless. 
The  lard  and  milk,  in  combination,  having  been  heated  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  135°,  are  then  put  into  the  "mixing  machine,"  where  it  is 
made  into  an  emulsion.  This  mixture,  which  is  two  parts  milk  and 
one  part  lard,  is  then  added  to  the  buttermilk  and  skimmed  milk  in  the 
cheese  vat.  This  is  then  submitted  to  a  heat  of  100°,  the  rennet  is 
added,  and  the  whole  allowed  to  stand  for  about  forty  minutes,  when 
it  coagulates.  The  curd  is  then  chopped,  salted,  drained  and  pressed, 
so  as  to  consolidate  the  solid  matter  and  press  out  the  fluid — the 
pressure  to  which  it  is  subjected  being  very  great.  About  thirty  days 
are  occupied  in  curing  these  cheeses,  during  which  time  they  are 
turned  every  twenty-four  hours. 

LARD-OIL. — Much  of  this  oil  is  exported,  more  than  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty  thousand  gallons,  at  the  value  of  a  dollar  and  a  fraction 
per  gallon,  being  annually  exported  to  Europe  ;  a  great  proportion  of 
which  is  returned  to  this  country  mixed  with  olive-oil,  and  resold  to 
the  trade  as  "pure  olive-oil."  It  is  also  found  to  be  a  valuable  lu- 
bricant for  machinery.  Good  lard-oil  is  a  pale-yellowish  or  nearly 
colorless  oily  liquid,  of  a  slightly  fatty  odor  and  a  bland  taste.  Any 
mineral  oil  present  can  be  detected  by  the  failure  of  the  adulterating 
substance  to  become  soap.  The  admixture  of  cotton-seed  oil  with 
lard-oil  is  not  readily  detected,  if  the  former  was  refined  and  of  a  pal  3 
color.  Any  deep-colored  lard-oil,  or  one  having  a  pronounced  yel- 


74  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

low  tint,  would  necessarily  be  suspicious.  There  are  no  reliable 
chemical  tests,  cither  to  distinguish  these  two  oils,  or  to  prove  the 
presence  of  both  in  one  mixture. 

LEAKAGE. — An  opening  or  defect  which  allows  a  substance 
to  waste  or  pass  out.  Allowance  is  made  for  leakage  only  when  it 
can  be  proved  that  the  goods  were  not  shipped  in  good  condition. 

LEMOX. — The  fruit  of  a  tree  closely  related  to  the  orange, 
citron  and  lime ;  some  botanists  consider  all  these  as  simply  of  one- 
species — the  citron.  The  lemon  grows  wild  in  the  north  of  India, 
and  has  been  long  cultivated  among  the  Arabs  who  carried  its  cul- 
ture into  Europe  and  Africa.  It  is  now  naturalized  in  the  West 
Indies  and  other  parts  of  tropical  America.  This  fruit  is  oblong, 
wrinkled  or  furrowed,  and  of  pale  yellow  color.  The  pulp  of 
the  fruit  abounds  in  citric  acid.  There  is,  however,  a  variety 
cultivated  in  the  south  of  Europe,  the  juice  of  which  is  very 
sweet.  The  acid  juice  of  the  common  kind  is  largely  employed 
in  preparing  the  beverage  known  as  lemonade.  It  is  also  used  in 
calico-printing,  and  as  a  flavoring  extract,  and  as  an  effective  pre- 
ventive 'for  sea-scurvy,  though  the  juice  of  the  Lime-fruit  [which  see] 
has  of  late  years,  to  a  great  extent,  taken  its  pla<-e,  from  its  superior 
efficiency.  Lemons  vary  very  much  in  size,  and  the  ordinary  boxes 
contain  from  two  hundred  and  forty  to  four  hundred  and  twenty  lem- 
ons each  ;  the  brands  L  and  LL  being  used  to  designate  sizes,  single 
L's  being  the  largest.  They  are  wrapped  separately  in  order  to  pre- 
vent decay  by  crushing  together.  Thin-skinned  lemons  are  the 
juiciest.  There  are  over  thirty  varieties  of  lemons  in  cultivation,  but 
they  are  generally  classified  according  to  the  place  of  growth  or  ship- 
ping. The  principal  importations  into  this  country  are  from  Sicily 
(Messina  lemons)  and  from  Valencia.  The  lemon  can  be  success- 
fully grown  in  Florida  and  California — products  which  are  receiving 
great  attention.  The  oil  of  the  lemon  is  largely  used  in  cooking  and 
confectionery ;  the  extract  of  lemon,  sold  for  domestic  use,  being 
simply  a  dilute  solution  of  the  oil  in  alcohol.  The  pure  juice  of  the 
lemon  is  extremely  efficacious  in  attacks  of  acute  rheumatism. 

LEMON  PEEL. — The  outer  skin  of  the  lemon,  which  is  put 
to  many  uses.  By  rasping  and  pressure  an  oil  is  extracted  from  the 
peel,  which  is  put  up  in  cans,  and  is  employed  largely  in  cookery  and 
confectionery.  The  peel  is  also  put  to  use  by  being  candied  or  pre- 
served in  sugar,  in  the  same  manner  as  citron. 

LEMONADE. — A  beverage  made  from  the  juice  of  the  lemon, 
for  the  purpose  of  allaying  thirst.  It  is  also  used  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses, wheu  it  is  made  either  hot  or  cold,  according  to  the  complaint. 
The  vendors  of  lemonade  use  citric  or  tartaric  acid,  or  even  a  few 
drops  of  sulphuric  acid,  to  make  their  mixture,  and  only  slice  a 


THE    GKOCEK'S  COMPANION.  75 

few  lemons  to  float  on  the  surface  and  please  the  eye.  Most  of  the 
lemonade  powders  declared  to  be  pure,  are  made  in  a  similar  way. 
Reliable  brands  of  lime-juice  are  preferable,  unless  the  fresh  fruit  is 
at  hand. 

LENTILS. — Lentils  are  the  seeds  of  plants  closely  related  to 
the  pea,  and  have  been  used  as  an  article  of  food  from  the  earliest 
times.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe,  Asia  and  Egypt,  where  they  form 
an  important  article  of  food.  They  are  largely  used  l>y  the  Roman 
Catholics  during  the  Lenten  season.  They  are  imported  into  this 
country  to  a  limited  extent,  but  their  use  is  mainly  confined  to  Euro- 
peans. The  Germans  use  the  lentils  in  the  preparation  of  soup. 
Lentils  contain  a  large  amount  of  nutriment ;  and  lentil  meal,  flavored 
with  sugar  and  salt,  is  sold  under  high-sounding  names,  as  a  food 
for  children. 

LETTUCE. — A  plant  having  small  flowers,  a  leafy  stem  and 
oblong  leaves.  It  is  obtained  in  good  condition  during  the  whole 
summer,  and  is  generally  eaten  with  vinegar  and  oil  as  a  salad.  It 
is  forced  under  glass  by  our  market  gardeners,  and  is  extensively  used 
in  many  salads,  such  as  lobster,  crab,  etc.  Lettuce  as  a  food,  con- 
tains but  little  nutriment,  but  has  a  cooling  and  soothing  effect  on  the 
system.  During  the  period  of  flowering,  the  plants  abound  in  a  i*ilky 
juice  which  is  collected  and  evaporated,  and  has  the  properties  of 
opium,  but  in  a  much  milder  degree. 

LICORICE. — The  black  mass  which  comes  on  the  market  ia 
small,  round  rolls,  is  the  boiled  juice  of  the  licorice  plant,  which 
grows  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  most  commonly  done  up  in 
sticks,  is  dry  arid  brittle,  and  to  be  soluble  in  water  should  be  pure. 
It  is  adulterated  to  such  an  extent  that  the  pure  article  is  rare  indeed. 
A  mixture  of  a  little  of  the  juice  with  the  poorest  kind  of  gum  arabic, 
starch  and  flour,  is  what  is  generally  put  on  the  market  for  licorice. 
Its  principal  use  is  in  medicine,  and  it  is  extensively  used  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  tobacco  and  liquors,  especially  to  give  color  and  flavor  to 
porter  and  brown  stout,  and  also  into  some  branded  liquors. 

LICORICE  PASTE — Is  an  inferior  article,  generally  coming  from 
Turkey. 

POUTEPACT  CAKES — Are  round  lozenges  of  refined  licorice,  made 
at  the  town  of  that  name,  and  impressed  with  a  rude  figure  of  the 
castle. 

LIMBURGEB  CHEESE.— Thousands  of  tons  of  Limburger 
Cheese  (or  rather  an  imitation),  are  now  produced  every  season, 
mostly  in  the  States  of  New  York  and  Wisconsin,  at  a  cost  of  less 
than  half  of  the  imported  article.  It  is  consumed  mostly  by  our  Ger- 
man-American population.  The  process  of  manufacture,  in  its  first 


7G  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

stages,  does  not  differ  from  the  usual  way,  except  that  a  lower  tem- 
perature is  kept  while  the  curd  is  forming — the  animal  heat  alone  in 
summer  being  often  high  enough.  Great  care  is  taken  to  use  pure 
milk,  free  from  taint  or  filth,  and  cleanliness  is  requisite  in  every  stage 
of  the  making.  Upon  the  curd  being  formed,  it  is  slowly  and  care- 
fully cut  into  squares,  pieces  the  size  of  dice ;  low  temperature  and 
careful  handling  being  necessary  to  avoid  breaking  the  butter  glo- 
bules, upon  which  the  richness  of  the  cheese  depends.  It  is  slightly 
scalded  and  stirred,  most  of  the  whey  drawn  off,  and,  without  being 
salted,  the  curd  is  dipped  out  into  perforated  wooden  boxes  or  moulds, 
about  five  inches  square,  and  left  to  drain  without  any  pressure  being 
applied.  In  a  few  hours  the  packages  are  carried  into  the  curing 
cellar  and  placed  edgeways  on  shelves,  like  bricks  set  to  dry.  Every 
<lay  thereafter  they  are  rolled  in  salt,  and  replaced  when  they  have 
absorbed  enough  salt.  They  are  turned  almost  every  day,  and  the 
slimy  moisture  which  exudes  is  rubbed  with  the  hand  evenly  over  the 
surface,  which  serves  the  double  purpose  of  keeping  the  cheese  moist 
and  to  keep  close  all  cracks  into  which  flies  might  lay  their  eggs. 
This  outside  moisture  decomposes  while  the  cheese  ripens,  and,  being 
mostly  composed  of  albumen,  like  fresh  meats,  eggs,  etc.,  the  same 
results  follow  the  decomposition  ;  and  in  this  case  the  Limburger  odor 
is  developed,  which  never  forsakes  it,  and  sticks  closer  than  a  brother 
to  all  who  touch  or  eat  it.  After  eight  to  ten  weeks  it  is  repacked  in 
paper  and  tin  foil,  and  it  is  ready  for  market, — in  consistence,  con- 
tents and  nourishment,  the  richest  cheese  that  can  be  made,  but  to  the 
uninitiated  a  malicious  and  premeditated  outrage  upon  the  organ  of 
smell. 

LIME — When  pure,  is  a  white,  brittle  substance,  and  is  in- 
creased in  bulk  by  the  addition  of  water,  when  the  two  enter  into 
•combination  ;  and  if  the  water  is  not  in  excess,  a  great  heat  is  ob- 
tained. It  is  doubly  as  soluble  in  cold  as  it  is  in  boiling  water. 
The  calcining  or  burning  of  lime  is  performed  in  kilns.  Periodic 
kilns  are  those  in  which  the  limestone  and  fuel  are  mingled,  and 
after  the  operation  is  completed,  removed,  which  requires  an  inter- 
mission to  clear  out  the  kiln  before  repeating  the  process.  The  con- 
tinuous kiln  is  constructed  in  such  a  manner  that  the  lime  may  be 
drawn  off  at  one  side  without  extinguishing  the  fire.  Lime  is  of 
great  importance  in  agriculture,  and  is  used  in  several  forms,  both 
separately  and  in  combination  with  various  other  substances  in  arti- 
ficial farmyard  manures.  One  of  the  principal  agricultural  uses  of 
lime  is,  however,  not  alone  to  supply  the  growing  plants  with  their 
needed  constituents,  but  to  so  act  upon  the  soil  as  to  unlock  the 
riches  to  them.  The  hydrate  of  lime  is  largely  used  in  coating  the 
plastered  walls  of  buildings ;  by  the  tanner  in  removing  hair  from 
hides ;  by  the  paper  maker  in  the  preparation  of  pulp.  It  is  also 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  caustic,  potash  and  soda.  The  hydrate 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  77 

is  also  largely  used  in  the  purification  of  illuminating  gas.  Large- 
quantities  of  lime  are  obtained  in  Cornwall  and  Devonshire,  England> 
and  in  Spain  and  Bohemia.  It  is  also  produced  in  large  quantities 
in  this  country — Rockland,  Me.,  being  an  important  seat  of  their  in- 
dustry. 

LIME  WATER — "When  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  or  excess 
of  milk,  is  an  excellent  remedy  for  vomiting  caused  by  irritability  of 
the  stomach.  A  piece  of  lime  as  large  as  a  hen's  egg,  dissolved  in 
a  pint  of  water,  makes  the  ordinary  mixture. 

LIME. — A  fruit  resembling  a  miniature  lemon.  It  is  best 
known  to  commerce  when  prepared  and  sold  as  "pickled  limes,  " 
and  also  as  the  fruit  from  which  lime-fruit  juice  is  made  [which  see] . 

LIME-FRUIT  JUICE.— The  lime  is  a  fruit  of  the  orange 
species,  growing  abundantly  in  the  West  Indies,  in  India  and  in  some 
parts  of  Europe.  Somewhat  smaller  than  the  lemon  (about  one  and 
a  half  inches  in  diameter  and  almost  globular) ,  it  has  a  very  thin 
skin  and  an  abundant  juice,  which  makes  its  relative  value  much 
greater  than  its  comparative  size  would  indicate.  Its  juice  is  also 
much  stronger  (from  a  pharmaceutical  point  of  view),  and  has  art 
aromatic  flavor.  During  the  last  five  years  a  marvellous  progress  has 
been  made  in  its  cultivation,  the  development  of  its  properties,  and 
its  adaptation  to  a  variety  of  domestic  and  medicinal  uses  not  pre- 
viously attempted. 

Lime-fruit  juice  (when  pure) ,  in  any  form,  is  an  invaluable  and 
infallible  remedial  agent  in  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  manufactured. 
In  gout,  rheumatism  and  like  maladies,  it  is  largely  prescribed  as  an 
article  of  daily  diet,  and  with  the  most  beneficial  results.  As  an  anti- 
scorbutic, it  is  pre-eminent  and  without  an  equal ;  and  has  stood  the 
test  of  centuries,  no  other  article  having  been  found  nearly  so  effica- 
cious. Prof.  Doremus  testifies  :  "  It  is  not  only  a  delicious  beverage, 
commending  itself  to  our  taste,  but  a  very  acceptable  and  wholesome 
acid  to  the  stomach,  an  adjuvant  in  its  important  share  in  the  act  of 
digestion."  Those  afflicted  with  rheumatic  pains  have  been  benefited 
by  its  use.  Its  valuable  properties,  as  it  is  absorbed  by  the  system, 
are  well  known  to  chemists,  recognized  by  the  medical  profession, 
and  thoroughly  established  by  years  of  experience.  Governments 
appreciate  its  high  importance  as  a  preservation  of  health  and  as  an 
anti-scorbutic,  and  specially  require  it  to  be  kept  in  stock  in  their  na- 
val and  other  stores.  The  London  Lancet,  an  authority  universally 
acknowledged  on  all  subjects  of  an  hygienic  or  sanitary  character,  or 
any  matters  connected  with  food  and  food  products,  says:  "We 
counsel  the  public  to  drink  lime-juice  whenever  and  wherever  they 
are.  They  may  be  assured  that,  as  a  rule,  lime-juice  is — particularly 
during  the  summer  and  autumn — a  far  more  wholesome  drink  than 


78  THE    GliOCER'S    COMPANION. 

any  form  of  alcohol ;  and  that,  say  an  ounce  or  two  of  the  pure  juice 
in  a  tumbler  of  really  cold  water,  sweetened  to  taste,  is  about  the 
pleasantest  beverage  that  can  be  taken  when  the  thermometer  is  over 
€5°  or  70°.  \Ve  commend  this  drink  to  all  restaurants  and  coffee- 
houses ;  but  caution  them  to  procure  the  best  and  purest  West  Indian 
lime-juice,  as  much  more  wholesome  than  any  mixture  containing 
other  ingredients."  It  is  used  for  exactly  the  same  purposes  as  lemon- 
juice  ;  and,  indeed,  there  are  many  more  uses  to  which  it  can  be  ap- 
plied, as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  catalogue  of  forms  in  which  it 
is  now  known  and  patronized  by  the  trade  generally.  It  is  done  up 
in  various  sized  bottles,  and  is  an  extremely  desirable  article  for 
fancy  grocers. 

As  a  SAUCE  for  the  table,  and  to  be  used  with  roast  meats, 
steaks,  cutlets,  chops,  fish,  curries,  gravies,  game  and  soups,  the 
MONTSERRAT  LIME-FRUIT  JUICE  SAUCE  is  much  appreciated  by 
connoisseurs. 

In  the  shape  of  CORDIALS  or  LIQUORS,  it  is  combined  with  aro- 
matic spices  and  fruits,  such  as  the  Jagonelle  pear,  Peppermint,  Pine- 
apple, Raspberry,  Strawberry,  Sarsaparilla,  etc.,  the  fruits  and  root 
essences  being  of 'guaranteed  purity. 

It  is  also  combined  with  pure  QUININE,  and  with  the  purest  and 
most  ninocuous  tonic  herbs  as  a  BITTER. 

The  most  concentrated  and  useful  form  for  confectioners,  licensed 
victuallers  and  others,  in  which  it  is  sold,  is  the  LIMETTA  CORDIAL — 
being  the  concentrated  extract  of  the  lime,  simply  cordialized  with 
sugar,  but  so  prepared  that  the  flavor,  which  is  objected  to  by  some, 
is  entirely  covered. 

It  has  also  been  brought  in  successful  combination  with  fancy 
Iriscuits,  and  with  crystallized  and  gelatinized  fruits,  and  the  most 
popular  confections  known  in  England  and  imported  into  this  coun- 
try, being  manufactured  with  this  ingredient. 

LIMITATIONS  (STATUTE  OF).— On  account  of  the  frailty 
•of  human  memory  and  the  uncertainty  of  such  claims,  all  countries 
have  set  a  limit  upon  the  time  within  which  rights  may  be  litigated, 
called  the  Statute  of  Limitations.  The  statute  begins  to  rim  when 
the  right  is  complete  ;  that  is,  the  money  is  due  and  payable,  subject 
to  certain  exceptions  in  favor  of  minors,  persons  beyond  seas,  and 
those  not  of  sound  mind ;  and  after  it  begins  to  run,  is  not  estopped 
by  anything  except  a  payment  on  account,  or  an  acknowledgment 
of  the  debt,  accompanied  by  an  express  promise  to  pay  it,  which,  in 
some  states,  must  be  in  writing.  In  either  event  the  debt  is  revived. 
And  the  statute  begins  to  run  over  again  from  that  date.  The  limita- 
tion being  regulated  by  the  legislatures  of  the  various  states,  differ:; 
greatly  throughout  the  United  States.  New  Mexico  is  the  only  state 
without  such  a  statute.  It  may  be  said  generally  that  claims  founded 
upon  instruments  in  writing,  under  seal,  are  not  within  the  statute  of 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  79 

any  state.  The  period  within  which  suits  must  be  brought  on  con- 
tracts iu  writing  (like  bills  and  notes),  contracts  not  in  writing  (like 
sales  of  goods  evidenced  by  book  accounts) ,  is  six  years  in  Colorado, 
Dakota,  Indiana,  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  New 
Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Ohio,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania, 
Rhode  Island,  South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Vermont  and  Wisconsin. 
Five  years  in  Montana  and  Nebraska.  Three  years  in  California, 
Delaware,  Maryland  and  North  Carolina.  Two  years  in  Nevada. 
In  the  other  states  a  difference  is  made  between  suits  on  contracts  in 
writing  and  on  contracts  not  in  writing,  as  store  accounts,  in  respect 
to  the  period  of  limitation.  It  is  six  years  in  the  former  and  four 
years  in  the  latter  case  in  Georgia  ;  six  years  in  the  former  and  three 
in  the  latter  in  Connecticut,  District  of  Columbia,  Mississippi  and 
Washington  Territory  ;  five  years  in  the  former  and  three  in  the  lat- 
ter in  Kansas,  Louisiana  and  West  Virginia  ;  five  years  in  the  former 
and  two  in  the  latter  in  Missouri  and  Virginia ;  four  in  the  former 
and  two  in  the  latter  in  Idaho,  Texas  and  Utah. 

LINSEED-OIL — Made  from  the  seed  of  the  flax-plant,  is  usu- 
ally of  amber  color,  but  when  pure  is  quite  colorless.  It  has  a  rather 
peculiar  and  unpleasant  odor  and  taste.  It  is  produced  by  crushing 
the  flaxseed  and  pressing  it.  It  is  sold  mainly  by  weight,  seven  and 
a  half  pounds  being  reckoned  to  the  gallon.  The  cake,  from  which 
the  oil  has  been  expressed,  is  called  oil-cake,  and  is  used  to  fatten  cat- 
tle. It  is  frequently  boiled,  when  it  is  used  to  mix  with  oil-colors  for 
artists  and  house  painters. 

LIQUORS. — A  class  of  spirituous  beverages,  sweetened  and 
flavored  with  aromatic  extracts  from  seeds  or  fruits.  They  vary 
considerably  in  strength,  flavor  and  quality.  Ratafias  are  simple, 
light  liquors,  containing  small  quantities  alike  of  the  sugar,  spirits 
and  flavorings.  Such  are  anise-water,  noyeau,  apricot  and  cherry 
ratafias,  etc.  Oils  or  fine  liquors  are  much  stronger,  and  among 
them  we  find  Maraschino,  Rosoglio,  Curacoa,  Dantzic  water,  etc. 
Various  qualities  and  proportions  of  the  ingredients  are  graded  and 
designated  by  French  names,  such  as  Eau-de-Noyeau,  or  Creme-de 
Noyeau. 

LIQUID  MEASURE.— A  measure  by  which  all  liquids  are 
sold.  [See  Tables.] 

LIQUID  RENNET— Prepared  from  the  dried  rennet  of  the 
calf.  It  may  be  prepared  by  steeping  the  rennets  in  whey  or  brine 
for  several  weeks  or  months.  It  is  used  to  coagulate  milk,  and  iii 
the  manufacture  of  cheese.  It  should  be  delicately  prepared,  and  is 
sold  generally  to  a  nice  class  of  customers.  It  comes  in  small  bot- 
tles, about  the  size  ordinarily  used  for  extracts. 


80  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

LOBSTERS.— The  common  lobster  of  the  United  States  has 
the  general  appearance  of  the  craw-fish,  but  is  of  larger  size  and 
lives  in  salt  water.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  lobster 
family  by  the  immense  size  of  its  claws.  There  is  only  one  American 
species  found  from  the  coasts  of  New  York  northward.  The  best  are. 
taken  on  the  rocky  shores  of  New  England,  north  of  Cape  Cod.  The 
number  of  lobsters  consumed  annually  in  the  United  States  is  simply 
enormous  ;  it  is  estimated  that  Boston  alone  consumes  1,250,000  an- 
nually. In  Boston  the  male  lobster  is  preferred  ;  in  New  York  the 
female  has  the  preference.  In  winter  the  supply  is  chiefly  derived 
from  Maine,  and  they  are  there  found  in  comparatively  deep  water. 
The  limit  of  salable  size  in  Massachusetts  is  ten  and  a  half  inches. 
During  cold  weather  lobsters  are  shipped  to  the  interior  cities,  and 
immense  quantities  of  the  meat  of  the  fish  are  canned  and  sent  to  the 
various  States  of  the  Union,  and  to  the  remotest  sections  of  the  Amer- 
ican continent,  as  well  as  exported  to  Europe.  It  ranges  in  weight 
from  one  to  fourteen  pounds,  and  its  best  season  is  from  October  to 
May.  It  is  a  favorite  article  of  food  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  in  all 
forms — fresh,  canned  and  mixed  with  salad.  One  peculiarity  in  the 
lobster  is  that  it  grows  only  while  its  skin  or  shell  is  soft ;  or,  in  other 
words,  while  it  is  moulting  or  casting  its  shell,  the  rapidity  of  its 
growth  at  this  time  being  wonderful.  They  are  very  voracious  in 
their  habits,  and  frequently  have  very  animated  combats  among  them- 
selves, when  one  of  the  combatants  is  pretty  sure  to  lose  some  part 
of  a  leg  or  claw  ;  but  another  one  grows  in  its  place,  which  is  always 
smaller  than  the  one  missing. 

LOGWOOD. — A  name  applied  to  a  dyewood  obtained  from  a 
tree  growing  in  Campeachy,  Honduras  and  other  sections  of  tropical 
America.  It  has  recently  become  naturalized  in  Jamaica.  Logwood 
was  used  as  a  dye"  in  England  soon  after  the  discovery  of  America, 
from  whence  it  was  obtained  ;  but  it  met  with  much  opposition  by 
Queen  Elizabeth,  an  act  being  passed  prohibiting  its  use.  In  1661 
the  act  was  repealed,  and  the  use  of  logwood  was  rapidly  increased. 
It  was  obtained  from  the  Spanish  possessions  in  America,  and  by  a 
special  treaty  the  English  were  allowed  to  cut  and  ship  wood  in  the 
Bay  of  Campeachy,  from  which  it  was  frequently  spoken  of  as  Cam- 
peachy  wood. 

LOVE  APPLE. — The  Tomato  was  introduced  into  this  country 
from  France  by  this  name ;  though  it  is  now  only  known  under  this 

name  [which  see] . 

/ 

LOZENGES. — Flat,  circular  or  oval  candies,  composed  chiefly 
of  farinaceous  matter,  sugar,  gum  or  isinglass  ;  employed  largely  in 
medical  practice,  as  a  convenient  method  of  administering  drugs  and 
medications  as  a  remedy  for  various  maladies  ;  there  are  also  various 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  81 

kinds  of  lozenges  flavored  with  fruits,  etc..  which  have  become  quite 
popular. 

LUCCA-OIL. — A  name  for  oilive-oil  [which  see] . 

MACARONI. — This  article  of  universal  consumption  in  Europe 
and  America  is  strictly  an  Italian  invention,  originally  formed  of 
cheese  and  paste.  For  a  very  long  period  its  manufacture  was  en- 
tirely confined  to  that  country,  the  finest  qualities  even  to-day  being 
made  there.  Correctly  speaking,  the  name  Macaroni  only  applies  to 
wheaten  paste  manipulated  in  the  form  of  pipes,  while  Vermicelli 
and  paste  are  the  same  article  in  other  forms.  The  very  hardest 
wheat  is  the  only  kind  properly  applicable  to  its  manufacture,  in  con- 
sequence of  its  glutinous  properties.  For  choice  sorts,  native  manu- 
facturers use  the  wheats  of  Odessa  and  Tagaroz.  Briefly,  the  pro- 
cess of  its  manufacture  is,  the  wheat  is  first  ground  into  coarse  meal, 
the  bran  being  separated  in  the  ordinary  way  ;  in  this  state  it  is  termed 
Semola  ;  during  the  grinding  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  apply  heat 
and  humidity  to  make  semola  of  good  quality.  The  semola  is  worked 
into  dough  with  the  addition  of  water  ;  for  macaroni  and  vermicelli 
the  dough  is  then  turned  into  a  press  supplied  with  a  perforated  bot- 
tom, and  cut  in  desired  lengths  as  it  passes  out ;  a  wire  hangs  in  the 
centre  of  each  hole  in  the  press,  to  form  the  hollow  in  the  centre,  the 
paste  being  partially  baked  during  this  process  to  maintain  its  form. 
The  whole  of  the  manufacturing  in  Italy  is  executed  in  the  most  pri- 
meval manner.  The  finest  quality  is  that  possessing  the  whitest  ap- 
pearance, and  which  when  boiling,  does  not  split,  but  swells  consid- 
erably and  becomes  quite  soft,  at  the  same  time  maintaining  its  form. 
If  it  fails  to  bear  either  of  these  tests,  it  has  been  made  from  inferior 
wheat. 

vThe  consumption  of  macaroni  in  this  country  constantly  in- 
creases ;  and  as  it  is  a  nutritious,  cheap  and  convenient  article  of  food, 
it  is  becoming  deservedly  popular.  Vermicelli  is  made  in  tin'  .same  way 
and  of  the  same  material,  the  only  difference  being  that  it  is  smaller, 
thinner  and  without  perforation.  Cooked  with  sharp  cheese,  boiled 
plainly  and  eaten  as  a  vegetable  with  plenty  of  salt,  in  soups  and  in 
many  other  ways,  it  makes  a  palatable  and  economical  dish,  suited 
to  all  classes.  American  manufacturers  have,  in  some  cases,  pro- 
duced an  article  fully  equal  to  the  imported,  but  in  too  many  cases 
have  injured  the  reputation  of  the  domestic  article. 

We  believe  that  no  better  and  cheaper  articles  of  food  cnn  be 
generally  introduced  to  the  American  public  than  Macaroni  »nd  Ver- 
micelli. The  immense  supplies  of  wheat  in  this  country  call  for  the 
use  of  eveiy  mode  of  preparing  it  for  the  table  that  can  bo  developed. 
We  cannot  eat  it  as  a  vegetable  with  meats  in  any  other  form  than 
this,  which  the  Italians  have  taught  us,  and  except  in  bread,  there 
seems  to  be  no  usual  way  of  eating  it  without  svrcetening.  In  cake, 


82  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

and  in  whefttcn-grits  porridge,  our  flour  is  generally  surfeited  with 
sugar  to  such  .an  extent  as  to  make  it  anything  but  a  staple  for  diet. 
Healthy,  cheap  and  very  nutritious,  we  cannot  too  strongly  advocate 
the  general  adoption  of  macaroni  upon  our  tables.  The  American 
manufacturers  are  steadily  improving  their  product,  and  turning  out 
an  article  which  is  firm  and  retains  its  shape  even  after  continued 
boiling,  and  does  not  have  a  slimy  or  pasty  surface  after  being  cooked. 
There  is  a  flavor  about  the  foreign  article  which  is  seldom  reproduced 
in  the  domestic  manufacture,  aud  we  must  acknowledge  that,  although 
some  of  our  home  brands  are  equal  to  any  Italian  goods  in  the  mar- 
ket in  sweetness  of  flavor,  being  made  from  better  flour,  but  few  of 
them  are  equally  firm  when  cooked. 

MACE. — Mace  is  the  inner  covering  which  envelops  the  nutmeg. 
It  is  carefully  cut  out,  and  resembles  a  lacerated  membrane,  being 
blood-red  and  somewhat  fleshy  when  fresh.  It  is  then  prepared  for 
the  market  by  being  dried  for  several  days  in  the  sun,  and  carefully 
flattened  out.  It  becomes  yellow  in  drying  out.  It  has  a  peculiar 
strong,  yellow,  volatile  oil,  which  can  be  extracted  by  the  ordinary 
processes  of  distillation.  It  also  contains  a  ]*ed,  buttery  fixed  oil, 
which,  when  mixed  with  other  substances,  is  known  as  Nutmeg  Bal- 
sam. Mace  has  much  the  flavor  of  nutmeg,  but  has  a  peculiarity 
which,  to  most  tastes,  is  preferable.  Care  should  be  taken  in  select- 
ing to  choose  that  with  a  deep  orange  color,  wax-like  appearance, 
clear  and  transparent.  Dull-looking  parcels  should  be  avoided,  never 
being  genuine  mace,  but  what  is  usually  termed  "commerce  mace." 
It  comes  usually  from  Penaug  and  Singapore.* 

MACHINE  AND  LUBRICATING  OILS.— These  maybe 
of  either  animal,  vegetable  or  mineral  origin.  Sperm  oil  mixed  with 
spermaceti,  and  refined  whale  oil,  are  the  best  of  the  animal  oils  for 
lubricating  purposes  ;  after  which  comes  lard-oil,  which  is  excellent. 
Neats-foot  oil  is  used,  to  some  extent,  as  a  machine  oil.  Vegetable 
oils,  found  ready  formed  in  the  seeds,  nuts  and  other  parts^  of  various 
plants  and  obtained  by  pressure,  are  of  very  great  variety,  and  are 
naturally  divided  into  classes  :  1. — Drying  oils,  of  which  linseed-oil 
is  an  example.  2. — Fatty  or  non-drying  oils.  The  dry  oils  cannot 
}>e  employed  as  lubricants,  but  auy  of  the  second  class  may  be  used 
for  this  purpose. 

The  best  mineral  lubricating  oils  are  such  as  have  been  subjected 
to  fractional  distillation,  and  the  more  volatile  compounds  expelled. 
Of  these  the  best  example  is  the  heavy  lubricating  oil  obtained  from 
the  paraffine  oil  of  the  petroleum  refineries.  It  is  produced  in  great 
quantities,  and  is  of  excellent  quality.  Crude  petroleum  is  consider- 
ably used,  and  is  tolerably  good  under  light  pressure.  Most  of  the 
machine  oils  in  market  are  mixtures  of  a  variety  of  different  oils, 
usually  consisting  of  one  which  will  give  good  body  mixed  with 


THE    GROCER'S  COMPANION.  83 

other  less  valuable   ones.     Mineral  oil  with  lard  oil  is  a  common 
mixture. 

MACKEREL. — The  most  important  species  of  this  numerous 
family  are  the  S.  vernalis  of  the  North  American  Atlantic  waters,  and 
the  S.  vulgaris  of  the  European  seas.  The  common  mackerel  of  our 
coast  is  found  in  all  the  North  Atlantic  waters.  Mackerel  fishing  is 
extensively  carried  on  in  Massachusetts  and  Maine — Gloucester  and 
Yarmouth  being  the  great  centre  of  fishery  in  this  country.  They 
are  usually  caught  by  seining ;  but  in  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  the 
fish  are  taken  by  hook  and  line.  The  mackerel  is  considered  by  many 
the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  fish  which  find  the  way  to  our  markets — 
their  time  of  arrival  being  usually  about  the  beginning  of  May.  They 
are  seldom  brought  in  a  live  state  to  our  markets,  and  are  generally 
hand  -  salted  in  barrels,  but  of  late  years  they  have  been  largely 
packed  in  tin  cans.  The  fish  are  carefully  selected  and  placed  in  the 
barrels,  and  numbered  for  the  market,  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  according  to 
the  quality.  It  is  necessary  that  No.  1  quality  should  not  be  under 
thirteen  inches,  free  from  taint,  damage  and  rust,  and  fine,  fat  fish. 
No.  2  must  be  fat  and  free  from  rust,  and  not  less  than  eleven  inches. 
No.  3  is  what  are  left  in  thfc  selection  of  Nos.  1  and  2.  No.  4  is 
what  are  left  in  the  selection  of  the  other  three  brands,  but  must  be 
without  damage  or  taint.  Mackerel  are  packed  into  barrels  or  kits, 
containing  from  fifteen  to  two  hundred  pounds  ;  and  whether  packed 
in  that  way  or  in  cans,  can  be  opened  and  sold  without  injury  to  the 
fish  or  risk  to  the  dealer.  Mackerel  taken  in  June  are  considered 
superior  to  the  fall  catch. 

The  packing  and  repacking  of  mackerel  is  an  extensive  business  ; 
and  the  result  of  repacking  is  not  always  satisfactory,  either  to  dealers 
or  consumers.  For  example :  a  barrel  of  mackerel  should  weigh 
two  hundred  pounds;  two  half-barrels,  then,  should  weigh  one  hun- 
dred pounds  each  ;  but  it  too  often  happens  that  the  half-barrels  come 
fifteen  or  twenty  pounds  short  of  their  proper  weight.  If  a  half-bar- 
rel weighs  eighty  pounds,  the  repacker  has  saved  for  his  own  profit 
forty  pounds  (or  two  kits  of  mackerel) — of  course,  so  much  dead  loss 
to  the  buyer.  This  system  of  underweight  has  now  assumed  such  a 
magnitude  that  there  is  an  urgent  demand  for  some  law,  properly  en- 
forced, to  regulate  weights  and  measures,  or  some  system  of  inspec- 
tion to  prevent  the  fraud  and  robbery  now  going  on.  Some  of  these, 
or  perhaps  the  majority  of  cases  of  short  weight,  are  specially  en- 
acted for  the  benefit  of  the  country  trade.  The  country  dealer,  sup- 
posing that  his  half-barrel  of  mackerel  weighs  one  hundred  pounds, 
bases  his  sale-price  and  profits  on  the  one  hundred  pounds  ;  finding, 
when  he  reaches  the  bottom  of  the  barrel,  that  he  is  short  twenty 
pounds — and,  of  course,  a  good  share  of,  if  not  all,  his  profits  on  that 
half-barrel.  If  he  finds  out  the  short  weight  before  commencing  to 


84  THE    GliOf.'KIi'S    COMPANION. 

sell,  the  loss  of  the  twenty  pounds  is  made  up  in  increase  of  price  tf> 
the  consumer.  The  same  system  of  packing  is  carried  on  in  respect 
to  kits,  which  ought  to  contain  one-tentli  of  a  barrel,  or  twenty  pounds. 
They  are  often  short  three,  four  or  five  pounds.  The  remedy  i.s  easy 
— test  the  weight  before  buying.  We  would  advise  oar  readers  tc* 
weigh  all  their  purchases  of  fish,  and  learn  if  the  weight  paid  for  lias 
been  furnished. 

There  have  been  inspected  in  Massachusetts  alone,  during  the 
ten  years  preceding  1874,  2,316,083  barrels,  or  an  average  of  231.000 
annually  ;  during  the  last  nine  years — that  is,  to  1883 — the  annual 
inspection  has  included  from  250,000  to  260,000  barrels,  which,  at 
the  low  estimate  of  §12.50,  gives  an  annual  product  of  63,250,000 
from  the  salt-mackerel  department  of  the  fishery  industry  of  Massa- 
chusetts. As  late  back  as  1850,  Prof.  Storcr  estimated  that  upwards 
of  eight  thousand  barrels  of  fresh  mackerel  were  sold  in  the  Boston 
market  alone.  During  the  thirty-three  years  which  has  elapsed,  the 
increased  facilities  for  transportation  has  augmented  this  traffic  fully 
fourfold,  so  that  the  trade  ia  fresh  mackerel  at  the  "Hub,"  can  be 
fairly  reckoned  at  seventy-two  thousand  barrels  per  annum.  Immense 
quantities  are  carried  to  New  York  market  direct  during  the  spring 
and  early  summer,  counting  which  and  other  places,  it  would  seem  a 
safe  calculation  that  more  fresh  mackerel  are  sold  than  salted.  Esti- 
mating their  values  on  the  same  basis  as  the  salted  fish,  and  allowing 
only  the  low  estimate  of  $6,000,000  for  all  the  mackerel  caught  in 
Maine  and  the  other  States,  we  have  66,000,000  annual  income  to  the 
industry  of  the  State,  on  an  outlay  of  813,000,000.  This  $6,000,000 
is  purely  productive  ;  every  dollar  comes  from  the  ocean.  Not  even 
farming  is  so  pre-eminently  and  entirely  a  productive  industry.  The 
fisherman  ploughs  an  untaxed  furrow  that  needs  no  replenishing  year 
by  year.  It  is  almost  incredible  how  fast  mackerel  may  be  caught  by  a 
trained  crew.  The  mackerel  sometimes  come  up  so  fast  that  the  whole 
side  of  the  vessel  shines  like  silver.  In  July,  1842,  a  crew  of  eleven 
men  and  boys  "  struck  a  school"  of  biting  mackerel  on  St.  George'* 
Bank.  In  tiventy-jive  minutes  they  caught  twenty-three  strike-barrels, 
barrels  so  full  that  the  live  mackerel  jumped  out. 

Spain,  Spanish  America  and  the  south  and  west  of  the  United 
States,  are  the  great  markets  for  salt  mackerel,  the  annual  customs 
receipts  of  which  now  reaches  580,000  pounds,  valued  at  $2, 900. 000. 

MADDER — Is  a  red  dye  made  from  the  roots  of  a  plant  of  that 
name.  It  is  a  native  of  Southern  Europe,  and  largely  cultivated  in 
France,  Asia  Minor  and  Holland.  Its  cultivation  in  the  United 
States,  though  perseveringly  tried,  has  not  been  very  successful.  It 
is  largely  used  in  the  printing  of  calico,  and  i.s  often  adulterated  with 
sawdust  of  pine  barks,  mahogany,  logwood,  etc.,  which  materially 
impairs  its  efficiency  as  a  dye.  Madder  ha.s  the  peculiar  property, 
when  fed  to  animals,  of  tinging  the  milk,  urine,  and  bones,  red. 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  85 

MALAGA  GRAPES — Is  the  name  given  to  the  large,  white, 
imported  grapes  which  come  hero  packed  iu  barrels  and  half-barrels, 
weighing  about  sixty  and  thirty  pounds  net.  Though  termed  Malaga, 
it  would  be  quite  erroneous  to  suppose  that  that  was  the  place  where 
they  were  grown,  for  it  is  only  the  port  of  shipment.  They  arrive  iu 
the  month  of  August,  and  continue  until  late  in  the  year.  It  is  al- 
ways best  to  keep  them  in  a  cool,  shaded,  dry  place,  and  when  un- 
packed, care  should  be  taken  to  brush  them  well  with  a  soft  brush, 
to  remove  the  cork  dust  in  which  they  are  packed.  The  finest  of 
them  are  of  excellent  flavor,  and  among  the  best  fruits  in  our  markets. 

MALT. — Grain  sweetened  by  being  allowed  to  germinate  or 
sprout,  and  afterward  dried  by  a  certain  process,  and  subsequently 
used  in  brewing.  Wheat,  rye,  oats  or  barley,  are  steeped  in  water 
for  twenty-four  hours,  and  then  heaped  up  until  the  sprouts  on  the 
grain  are  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long.  They  are  then  spread  out  to 
dry,  and  afterwards  kiln-dried,  which  arrests  further  germination,  and 
retains  the  sweetening  or  saccharine  properties. 

MALT  EXTRACT — Made  from  an  infusion  of  the  kiln-dried  grain 
with  water  at  165°.  After  draining  and  evaporation,  it  is  used  as  a 
remedy  in  irritable  forms  of  indigestion,  and  very  generally  as 
an  anti-scorbutic  The  genuine  extract  contains  all  the  soluble  in- 
gredients of  malt  and  the  bitter  principle  of  the  hop.  There  are  sev- 
eral excellent  "extracts"  in  the  market. 

MALT  VINEGAR. — A  strong  vinegar  in  general  use  in  Eng- 
land, especially  for  pickling  purposes,  aud  giving  an  entirely  different 
flavor  from  American  goods  put  up  in  cider  vinegar,  or  the  adulterated 
.acid  preparations  made  in  the  various  ways  described  under  "  Vine- 
gar" [which  see]. 

MANGO. — An  East  Indian  fruit  much  valued  by  the  natives, 
and  made  the  basis  of  Chutney  sauce.  The  unripe  fruit  is  used  to 
make  tarts,  and  is  preserved  in  various  forms. 

MANILLA — Is  a  species  of  Hemp  shipped  from  the  port  of  that 
name  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  where  hemp  is  extensively  grown 
and  exported  from  thence.  This  hemp,  on  account  of  its  strength,  is 
often  used  to  make  rope  and  paper,  which  also  bears  its  name,  and  is 
in  great  demand  among  grocers  and  other  tradesmen,  for  bags  and 
wrapping  purposes. 

MANUFACTURERS. — Formerly  the  distinction  between  the 
jobber  and  the  manufacturer  was  much  more  distinctly  marked  than 
at  present,  it  being  very  usual  now  for  wholesale  grocers  to  put  up 
goods  under  their  own  brands.  This  £ >rces  the  manufacturer  to  seek 
Ihe  retail  trade  direct,  and  makes  many  vital  changes  in  the  mode  of 


8G  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

doing  business  ;  for,  as  a  rule,  a  manufacturing  jobber  in  groceries 
cannot  sell  goods  bearing  his  own  brand  to  other  manufacturing  job- 
bers who  put  up  similar  goods,  nor  to  any  other  jobbers,  except  at 
some  distance  from  the  point  of  manufacture.  Consequently  the  largo 
jobbing  grocery  houses,  having  their  goods  in  the  market,  cannot  en- 
courage or  push  the  sale  of  goods  regularly  manufactured  by  the  orig- 
inal manufacturers,  without  injuring  themselves,  or,  at  any  rate, 
having  to  resort  to  extraordinrry  means  to  keep  their  own  goods  on 
the  trade-lists.  This  state  of  affairs  has  been  growing  more  and  more 
serious  and  threatening  for  several^  years,  until  now  it  has  become  a 
necessity  for  the  legitimate  manufacturer  to  become  himself  a  jobber, 
in  order  merely  to  hold  his  own.  There  was  a  time  Avhen  jobbers 
were  content  to  sell  the  goods  of  the  manufacturer,  and  not  make  and 
put  up  their  own  soap,  starch  and  baking  powders,  cigars,  canned 
goods,  and  the  thousand  and  one  items  pertaining  to  the  grocery 
trade,  thus  becoming  monopolists  in  the  worst  sense  of  the  word, 
and  driving  competition  to  a  ruinous  issue.  It  is  no  longer  a  question 
of  the  right  of  the  individual,  but  a  matter  of  serious  moment,  and 
even  commercial  existence,  to  one  or  both  parties.  We  thoroughly 
appreciate  the  position  of  both  the  manufacturer  and  the  jobber. 
They  naturally  wish  all  the  trade  they  can  get,  and  desire  to  avoid 
giving  offence  to  any  leading  house.  We  can  conceive  of  but  one 
satisfactory  solution  to  the  problem — and  that  is  for  the  manufacturer* 
to  bring  themselves  into  direct  contact  and  competition  with  the  very 
trade  that  the  leading  jobbing  manufacturing  grocery  houses  control, 
and  sell  their  goods  to  the  general  jobbing  and  best  retail  trade  in 
the  country.  The  retail  merchants  of  the  country  at. large  are  deeply 
interested  in  this  subject.  Whether  they  are  to  be  simply  the  agents, 
so  to  speak,  of  one  house  selling  all  its  goods  under  its  own  name,  and 
chiefly  confined  to  what  the  house  chooses  to  push  on  them,  or  whether 
they  are  to  have  the  choice  of  all  the  best  goods  made  in  the  country, 
are  questions  which  demand  their  immediate  consideration.  The 
advocacy  of  the  latter  policy  has  ever  been  enforced  by  the  NEW  ENG- 
LAND GROCER,  and  other  honest,  fearless  trade-journals  ;  the  maxim 
of  perfect  freedom  to  all  classes,  and  perfect  identity  of  interests  and 
direct  communication  between  the  manufacturer  and  the  retail  dealer. 
having  been  the  fundamental  principle  which  has  guided  its  effort* 
and  controlled  its  columns. 

MAPLE  SUGAR.  —  This  is  made  in  large  quantities  in  the 
Northern  United  States  from  the  sap  of  the  sugar  maple  tree,  a  native 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  sap  is  collected  by  boring  tho 
trees  several  feet  above  the  ground,  to  the  depth  of  half  an  inch,  with 
an  auger.  A  spout  or  lip  is  then  inserted  in  the  holes,  and  pails 
placed  beneath  to  catch  the  flowing  sap.  The  trees  an-  tapped  in  the 
early  spring,  just  atcer  the  fir^t  thaws.  A  good  tree  will  yield  about 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  87 

six  or  seven  pounds  of  sugar  each  season.  The  juice  is  boiled  to  a 
pyrup,  then  strained,  clarified  and  crystallized.  It  appears  in  our 
markets  in  cakes,  and  as  it  commands  a  good  price,  is  often  adulter- 
ated with  other  sugars  ;  and  when  sold  as  a  syrup  in  cans  or  bottles, 
is  often  nothing  but  ordinary  syrup,  flavored  to  resemble  maple  sugar. 
Both  the  maple  sugar  and  the  syrup  are  much  prized  on  account  of 
their  extremely  pleasant  flavor  ;  and  as  this  flavor  would  be  destroyed 
by  any  refining  process,  the  sugar  is  never  refined.  The  sources  of 
supply  are  Vermont,  New  York,  Ohio,  New  Hampshire,  Michigan, 
Pennsylvania  and  Indiana — the  annual  yield  of  maple  sugar  being 
about  30,000,000  pounds,  and  of  maple  syrup  1,100,000  pounds. 

MATCHES. — The  progress  from  rubbing  sticks  together  to  pro- 
duce fire,  up  to  the  flint  and  steel  and  tinder,  which  appeared  to  be 
always  damp — on  to  the  first  match,  which  was  merely  tipped  with 
sulphur  and  used  in  the  tinder  ;  thence  to  the  "  light-box,"  in  which 
sulphuric  acid  served  to  ignite  a  prepared  match ;  and  thence  past 
the  first  clumsy  "Lucifers,"  which  were  drawn  through  a  folded  piece 
of  sand-paper,  up  to  the  modern  or  "  Congreve"  match,  marks  the 
progress  of  civilization  and  the  growth  of  comfort  and  convenience, 
with  its  developments.  The  chemist  Faraday  introduced  the  first 
Lucifer  matches. 

The  wood  used  in  making  matches  is  the  best  straight-grained 
soft  pine,  which  is  cut  into  blocks  and  then  shaved  into  strips  by 
knives  which  act  transversely.  These  strips  are  the  length  of  two 
matches,  and  are  passed  through  a  hopper  which  drops  them  at  reg- 
ular intervals  into  a  revolving  tape  or  belt,  which  binds  them  into  a 
circular  bundle  like  a  double  brush.  This  bundle  is  then  flattened 
down  with  a  heavy  planer  of  the  same  size,  and  put  into  a  kiln  to 
dry.  One  end  is  then  dipped  into  melted  sulphur  or  paraffine  wax, 
and  when  it  is  dry  the  other  end  is  dipped  also.  Then  follows  the 
dipping  into  the  phosphorus  preparation,  after  which  the  belt  is  un- 
rolled and  the  matches  are  made,  except  that  they  are  of  double 
length  and  tipped  at  both  ends.  They  are  then  cut  in  two  by  ma- 
chinery, and  packed  into  boxes. 

SAFETY  MATCHES — Are  those  which  will  not  ignite  unless  they 
are  rubbed  on  a  specially  prepared  surface  ;  but,  being  found  incon- 
venient, they  are  not  generally  used. 

PARLOR  MATCHES — Are  generally  perfumed,  and  are  dipped  in 
paraffine  instead  of  sulphur. 

CARD  MATCHES — Are  made  in  the  form  of  a  comb,  and  are 
universally  used  in  New  England.  As  they  are  very  convenient  for 
the  pocket,  and  not  so  liable  to  be  dropped,  they  are  well  suited  to 
the  use  of  railway,  and  warehousemen,  and  farmers.  Matches  are 
a  most  troublesome  article  in  stock.  Dangerous  at  all  times,  difficult 


y*  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

to  ship  with  other  goods,  and  refused  by  most  railroads,  unless  on 
special  days  and  under  strict  terms,  they  are  a  necessary  evil,  and 
should  be  made  to  pay  a  good  profit. 

MARJORAM  (SWEET)— Is  a  herb  used  for  seasoning  in 
cooking.  It  is  used  in  medicine  as  an  infusion,  in  which  it  is  a  val- 
uable stimulant,  tonic  and  remedy  for  nervousness.  The  oil  is  used 
as  a  remedy  for  toothache  and  rheumatism.  The  Sweet  Marjoram 
of  our  gardens  is  a  native  of  Greece,  and  used  in  the  same  way  as 
wild  marjoram. 

MARMALADE. — A  conserve,  made  of  the  harder  fruits,  such 
as  the  Apple,  Pear,  Quince,  Pineapple,  Orange,  Lemon,  etc.,  with 
proportions  of  the  rinds  of  the  two  last  named,  and  a  large  quantity 
of  sugar.  It  is  evaporated  sufficiently  to  assume  given  forms  in  a. 
mould.  Conserves  are  sometimes  made  of  apricots,  peaches,  plums, 
berries  and  the  softer  fruits,  but  these  are,  properly  speaking,  jams. 
Oranges  and  lemons  are  the  most  popular  marmalades  known,  and 
are  thus  made :  The  rind  is  boiled  by  itself  first,  then  the  white  in- 
side coating  is  removed.  The  rind  is  then  cut  up  into  small  strips 
and  boiled  with  the  expressed  juice  of  the  pulp,  and  a  quantity  of 
sugar  equal  in  weight  to  the  other  ingredients.  After  the  mixture 
has  attained  its  proper  consistence,  it  is  treated  like  other  preserves. 
The  Seville  bitter  oranges  have,  for  a  long  time,  been  the  favorite 
fruit  used  in  the  manufacture  ;  but  of  late  years,  several  houses  in 
Florida  and  the  surrounding  region,  have  been  successfully  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  from  native  fruit. 

MARROWFAT. — A  variety  of  large  pea  (grown  for  domestic 
use),  which  ripens  quite  late  in  the  season. 

MARTYNIAS. — The  fruit  of  a  plant  native  to  the  valley  of 
the  Mississippi  and  the  plains  of  Mexico.  The  whole  plant  has  a 
clammy  appearance,  with  a  viscid,  pubescent  and  fetid  odor.  The 
long-beaked  fruit,  when  young,  is  used  for  making  pickles. 

MATS. — Mats,  properly  speaking,  are  textures  formed  of  barks, 
rushes  or  reeds.  Coffee,  figs,  sugar  and  various  other  articles,  are 
shipped  from  the  Pacific  ports  in  such  bags,  and  are  called  mats  of 
coffee,  etc.  Dates  are  similarly  packed,  but  their  coverings  are 
called  frails. 

MEAD. — A  fermented  liquor  made  from  honey.  The  honey  is 
mixed  with  water,  and  fermentation  is  produced  by  the  use  of  soda 
and  yeast.  It  was  at  one  time  a  fashionable  drink. 

MEAL. — Meal  is  any  kind  of  grain  coarsely  ground,  such  as 
Oat  meal,  Corn  meal,  etc.  It  is  used  in  various  forms  as  an  article 
of  food. 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  83 

MEASURES.— [See  "Weights  and  Measures,"  and  "  Sealer 
of  Weights  and  Measures".] 

MEAT  (FRESH). — It  is  both  dangerous  and  unprofitable  for 
a  grocer  to  sell  meats,  unless  he  has  his  store  suitably  fitted  up,  so 
that  he  can  handle  them  with  a  certain  degree  of  safety.  [See  "Store 
Fittings".]  With  the  grocer,  the  great  enemy  in  hot  weather  is  the 
fly,  which  leaves  its  eggs  in  some  moist  crevice  of  the  meat.  It  is 
surprising  with  what  rapidity  the  eggs  hatch,  or  become  live  maggots  ; 
consequently  it  is  very  needful  that  a  keen  watch  should  be  kept,  in 
order  to  arrest  their  development.  When  discovered,  apply  salt  water 
or  vinegar,  which  will,  as  a  rule,  remove  all  traces.  Meat  kept  on 
ice  loses  its  flavor,  and  does  not  grow  tender,  as  is  the  rule,  with  age. 
But,  when  put  on  ice,  it  is  advisable  not  to  thaw  it  unless  ready  to 
cook,  as  it  soon  becomes  spoiled.  When  a  grocer  handles  meats, 
they  should  invariably  be  of  the  best  quality. 

MEDICINES  (PATENT).— This  term  covers  all  proprietary 
medicines,  and,  of  course,  includes  many  that-  are  positively  worth- 
less, and  a  few  that  are  valuable  ;  but  it  is  useless  to  decry  the  entire 
class  because  the  majority  are  worse  than  valueless.  Many  simple 
forms  of  medicine  for  external  application  or  relieving  colds,  etc., 
are  of  great  value,  because  they  can  be  conveniently  and  reasonably 
procured.  They  pay  the  dealer  a  good  profit,  and  the  trade  is  very 
wisely  giving  more  attention  to  them  every  year. 

MELONS. — This  class  includes  a  large  variety,  from  the  Can- 
taloupe to  the  Watermelon.  The  most  popular  is  the  watermelon, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of  Africa,  though  seldom  found 
wild.  It  is  very  extensively  cultivated  in  all  warm  climates,  and 
flourishes  best  on  the  warm  soils  of  New  Jersey  and  the  Southern 
States.  The  Mountain  Spro'at  or  Carolina,  is,  perhaps,  the  first  to 
make  its  appearance  in  the  northern  markets.  There  are  also  the, 
Slack  Spanish,  a  good  variety,  almost  round,  a  medium  size,  sweet 
and  delicious.  The  White  Japan,  Skillman's  Netted,  Persian  Ispa- 
han and  Christina  follow.  The  Citron  Melon  is  small,  nearly  round, 
with  variegated  shell  and  seedy  flesh.  It  is  used  for  making  pre- 
serves, syrups  and  sweetmeats. 

METRICAL  SYSTEM.— The  French  system  of  measurement 
of  liquids  and  solids,  which  is  based  on  the  decimal  calculation,  and 
is  destined  to  become  universal,  has  become  legalized  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  intended  to  regulate  and  simplify  the  weights  and  mea- 
sures of  every  nation,  and  supply  a  uniform  standard,  which  shall  be 
understood  and  acted  upon  by  every  government  official  on  the  face 
of  the  globe.  The  customs  officers  of  the  United  States  and  thy 
European  governments  have  already  acquired  a  knowledge  of  its  gen- 


90  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

eral  principles,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  the  present  complica- 
ted system  of  weights,  and  measures,  and  coinage,  will  undoubtedly 
be  entirely  superseded  by  the  metrical  system. 

MILDEW. — A  certain  diseased  condition  of  vegetables,  fruits 
and  fluids,  caused  by  the  growth  of  small  fungi.  Mauy  of  the  most 
destructive  mildews  are  of  a  red  and  brown  color — as  the  mildew  of 
the  pear. 

MILK. — This  necessary  fluid,  the  produce  of  the  cow,  needs  no 
description.  Investigation  proves  that  there  are  very  few  cases  of 
adulteration,  properly  so  called,  except  with  water,  which,  unfortu- 
nately, is  but  too  prevalent.  The  presence  of  starch  may  be  tested 
by  dropping  a  little  iodine^  into  it ;  if  a  violet  blue  color  forms,  starch 
is  present.  Chalk  settles,  and  if  these  settlings  are  dissolved  in  vine- 
gar, they  will  foam  up. 

MILLET. — A  grain,  of  which  there  are  many  kinds  :  some  fur- 
nishing the  best  of  fodder  ;  others  used  for  feeding  caged-birds  ;  while 
that  grown  in  Peru  is  made  into  a  white  flour,  which  is  extensively 
used  in  that  country  as  an  article  of  food. 

MINCE  MEAT. — The  season  for  mince  meat  opens  about  Octo- 
ber 1st,  and  continues  as  long  as  the  cold  weather.  It  is  important 
to  have  a  supply  on  hand  before  the  actual  demand  sets  in,  rather 
than  after  it  has  commenced.  In  common  with  all  mixed  articles, 
mince  meat  can  be  made  in  various  ways,  and  much  that  is  offered  13 
trash ;  so  much  so,  that  many  families  prefer  to  prepare  their  own  sup- 
plies. For  information  regarding  the  best  makes,  the  prices,  etc., 
we  refer  our  readers  to  the  columns  of  the  NEW  ENGLAND  GROCER. 

MINERAL  WATERS.— Bottled  Mineral  Waters  are  termed 
"soft  goods"  by  saloon-keepers,  and  are  profitable  stock  to  retail 
grocers,  both  in  the  profit-margin  they  leave,  and  because  they  draw 
good  trade  from  the  more  extravagant  classes.  The  higher  grades, 
f-nch  as  genuine  Apollinaris  Water,  and  the  various  mineral  spring 
waters,  are  easy  to  handle,  if  kept  in  a  cool  place  and  laid  on  their 
sides. 

MINT. — There  are  various  species  of  this  plant,  all  of  which 
are  more  or  less  medicinal,  containing  an  essential  oil.  The  Pepper- 
mint, the  strongest  of  its  kind,  is  used  for  making  oil  of  peppermint, 
which  is  extensively  used  for  flavoring  candy. 

MOLASSES. — Molasses  is  the  syrup,  or,  as  it  is  termed  in  the 
immediate  districts  where  it  is  manufactured,  the  mother-water  that 
is  separated  from  the  crystals  or  grains  of  raw  sugar  in  the  process 
of  manufacture  ;  when  the  sugar  is  becoming  dry  or  crystallized,  the 
syrup  drops  from  the  grains  as  honey  does  from  the  comb.  The  uame 


THE    GROCER'S  COMPANION.  91 

molasses  in  this  country,  is  erroneously  given  to  sugar-house  syrupr 
known  as  black  strap,  which  in  England  is  called  treacle,  made  from, 
the  last  boilings  of  common  sugar.  In  France  and  the  rest  of  Europe, 
treacle  and  molasses  bear  the  name  of  molasses  indiscriminately,  with 
the  exception  of  Germany,  where  they  are  both  designated  as  syrup. 

The  quality  of  molasses  depends  entirely  on  the  color,  strength,. 
and  most  of  all  the  treatment  of  the  raw  sugar  from  which  it  is  ob- 
tained ;  consequently  it  is  impossible  to  get  fine,  bright,  clear,  good- 
flavored  mo'asses,  except  from  sugar  of  excellent  quality,  both  in 
celor  and  flavor.  A  strong,  but  in  other  respects  undesirable,  quality 
of  molasses  is  obtained  from  clayed  sugar,  but  it  has  a  tendency  to 
become  acid,  which,  even  in  the  best  quality,  can  easily  be  detected 
by  its  tainted  flavor.  By  strong  molasses,  we  mean  that  most  capa- 
ble of  producing  a  large  percentage  of  granulated  sugar.  The  heav- 
iest molasses,  although  containing  much  less  water,  and,  therefore, 
a  greater  quantity  of  saccharine  or  sweetening  matter,  is  not,  as  a 
rule,  the  strongest — its  thickness  very  often  being  the  surest  sign  of 
the  presence  of  grape  sugar,  and  many  other  impurities  detrimental 
to  obtaining  good  granulated  sugar.  The  best  molasses  is  that  ob- 
tained from  the  first  crops  collected  previous  to  the  copious  periodical 
rains,  which  occur  where  the  cane  is  cultivated. 

Molasses  generally  is  of  a  dark-brown  color,  but  the  best  grades 
are  those  produced  at  St.  Croix,  Barbadoes  and  Porto  Rico,  being; 
of  that  bright  amber  color  and  sweet,  clear  flavor,  so  much  esteemed 
by  lovers  of  this  cheap  and  appetizing  adjunct  to  our  table.  It  is  a 
strange  feature  with  molasses,  that  its  consumption  is  almost  entirely 
confined  to  English-speaking  communities. 

The  more  the  improvements  taking  place  in  the  manufacture  of 
cane  sugar  the  less  molasses  we  shall  have,  because  it  is  not  nearly  so 
profitable  as  to  crystallize  the  sugar.  Molasses  is  handled  in  barrels, 
tierces,  puncheons  and  hogsheads,  which  contain  approximately  forty- 
five,  eighty,  one  hundred  and  twenty,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  gal- 
lons. New  Orleans  molasses  is  always  shipped  in  cypress  barrels, 
and  the  new  crop  arrives  in  market  about  November  1st.  Do  not 
buy  molasses  that  has  had  the  original  gauge  of  the  hogshead  changed. 
Only  the  outs  are  liable  to  change.  Every  grocer  should  have  an  out 
or  ullage  stick  (United  States  standard) ,  which  can  be  procured  for 
about  one  dollar  of  the  hardware  dealers. 

MUCILAGE. — The  Mucilage  of  commerce  has  for  its  basis 
gum  arabic  dissolved  in  water.  The  cheaper  kinds  contain  a  large 
amount  of  gum  tragacanth,  shellac  or  other  inferior  kinds.  It  is  sold 
in  bottles  of  the  size  and  shape  of  the  ordinary  writing-ink  bottles. 

MUSH. — Mush  or  Corn-meal  Porridge,  is  now  prepared  and 
supplied  to  the  trade  in  tin  pans,  holding  about  five  pounds  each. 
Families  buy  it  for  frying.  It  obviates  the  risk  of  lumpiness,  bum- 


92  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

ing,  etc.,  against  which  some  housekeepers  fail  to  provide,  and  is 
quite  saleable. 

MUSHROOMS. — Mushrooms  are  eaten  as  a  fruit  with  salt,  or 
as  a  dressing  with  meats.  In  France  they  grow  very  profusely  in 
the  neighborhood  of  vaults,  catacombs,  and  heaps  of  refuse.  They 
are  much  valued  by  epicures,  and  sold  in  cans  by  the  trade.  They  are 
gathered  in  considerable  quantities  in  the  pasture  fields  around  the 
large  cities.  The  gathering  of  these  fungi  is  said  to  be  a  profitable 
employment.  The  mushroom  springs  up  in  the  night,  and  withers  as 
soon  as  the  sun  comes  up  ;  consequently  the  gatherers  have  to  begin 
their  search  before  the  break  of  day.  An  active  man  or  boy  can  se- 
cure, when  they  are  at  all  plentiful,  from  one  to  ten  quarts  in  a  morn- 
ing, and  they  are  disposed  of  readily  at  from  twenty -five  to  fifty  cents 
per  quart.  It  requires  a  quick  and  experienced ,  eye  to  distinguish 
between  the  edible  mushroom  and  the  poisonous  toadstool,  and  gath- 
erers who  are  not  well-known,  have  some  difficulty  in  disposing  of 
their  collections.  The  hotels  and  wealthy  people  take  pretty  much  all 
the  mushrooms  that  are  gathered.  Why  is  it  that  nobody  cultivates 
mushrooms  in  America?  If  anybody  is  in  the  business,  it  must  be 
on  a  very  small  scale.  Even  the  wild  mushrooms  are  seldom  gath- 
ered, yet,  when  they  are  brought  to  market,  they  are  rapidly  sold  at 
good  prices.  Forty  cents  a  quart  is  not  a  small  sum  to  ask  for  what 
can  be  picked  up  in  five  minutes.  The  mushroom  is  a  delicacy  liked 
by  every  one,  and  to  raise  it  is  an  easy  matter.  As  it  is,  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  our  mushrooms  come  in  cans  from  France,  and  are 
not  to  be  compared  to  the  fresh  article. 

MUSK-MELON.— This  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  Persia.  The 
fruit  is  very  variable  in  size  ;  it  reaches  its  perfection  in  the  Southern 
States,  but  is  also  successfully  cultivated  in  the  North.  There  are 
many  mixed  varieties,  but  the  purest  and  most  generally  used  are  the 
Green  Citron,  a  medium  fruit  deeply  netted,  green  flesh,  delicious 
flavor  and  almost  round.  The  Nutmeg,  fruit  nutmeg-shape,  skin  deep 
green,  thickly  netted,  flesh  greenish  yellow,  sugary  and  of  excellent 
flavor.  Musk-melons  for  shipping,  are  commonly  packed  in  crates 
containing  from  one  to  two  dozen. 

MUSTARD. — There  two  kinds  of  mustard-seed,  black  and 
white.  When  the  condiment  now  known  in  the  grocery  stores  as 
Mustard  was  first  introduced  into  England,  it  was  nothing  more  than 
the  crushed  seed.  The  manipulation  gradually  developed,  as  it  be- 
came necessary  for  the  manufacturers  to  cater  to  the  public  taste,  aud 
the  result  is  that  each  manufacturer  now  has  his  own  recipe  for  making 
the  condiment.  Genuine  mustard  is  easily  attainable,  but  it  is  found 
that  it  does  not  answer  the  purposes  and  supply  the  wants  of  the  pul>- 
Jic  so  well  as  the  preparations  made  by  eminent  manufacturers.  The 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

duty  on  ground  mustard,  imported  into  this  country,  is  fourteen  cents. 
per  pound,  and  as  the  whole  mustard-seed  comes  in  free  of  duty,  it  is. 
unquestionably  to  the  interest  of  the  trade  and  the  public  to  handle 
good  brands. 

There  are  several  good  brands  of  made  mustards  imported  in 
fancy  jars,  from  France  and  Germany — the  French  mustard  being 
very  piquant  in  flavor,  and  the  German  mustard  mild  and  palatable. 
As  commonly  prepared,  mustard  is  largely  adulterated ;  rape-seed, 
turnip-seed  too  old  to  vegetate,  and  wild  radish,  are  often  ground 
with  it.  After  being  ground  it  is  adulterated  with  wheat  flour  and 
turmeric  ;  as  mustard  contains  no  starch  grains,  the  presence  of  wheat 
flour  may  easily  be  found  by  the  use  of  the  microscope.  Turmeric 
may  be  known  by  its  being  colored  brown  by  a  weak  solution  of  am- 
monia. Mustard  is  largely  used  as  a  condiment,  and  also  in  medi- 
cine ;  swallowed  in  any  quantity  with  water,  it  acts  as  a  prompt 
emetic,  and  is  useful  in  cases  of  poisoning ;  mixed  with  water  and 
made  into  a  paste,  it  is  applied  to  the  skin  in  the  form  of  a  plaster. 

Mustard  was  little  known  before  the  year  1729.  About  that 
time,  an  old  woman  of  the  name  of  Clements,  residing  in  Durham, 
England,  began  to  grind  the  seed  in  a  mill,  and  to  pass  the  flour 
through  the  several  processes  necessary  to  free  it  from  the  husks. 
She  kept  the  secret  to  herself  for  many  years,  during  which  she  sold 
large  quantities  of  mustard  throughout  the  country,  but  especially  in 
London.  Here  it  was  introduced  to  the  royal  table,  and  received  the 
approval  of  George  I.  From  the  circumstance  of  Mrs.  Clement* 
being  a  resident  of  Durham,  it  was  ever  afterwards  known  as  Dur- 
ham Mustard.  Though  there  is  no  "official"  record  of  its  introduc- 
tion to  America,  there  is  every  evidence  to  prove  that  it  was  well- 
known  in  the  American  colony  long  before  the  "Boston  Tea-Party" 
administered  their  famous  ' '  Mustard  Plaster  "  to  the  mother  country, 
in  the  shape  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

MUSTARD  (OiL  OF). — From  the  mustard-seed  an  oil  is  extracted 
by  expression,  which  is  called  Oil  of  Mustard;  it  is  a  fixed  oil,  with 
but  little  smell  and  not  unpleasant  taste.  After  the  fixed  oil  is  ex- 
tracted from  the  seed,  there  is  obtained  from  the  residue  a  volatile  oil 
which  is  of  an  exceedingly  pungent  odor,  and  having  sulphur  among 
its  constituents  ;  sulphur  is  also  present  in  flour  of  mustard,  and  is 
the  element  that  causes  silver  to  turn  black  when  the  mustard  is  mixed 
with  water  or  vinegar. 

NAILS. — Nail  making  by  machinery  was  introduced  into  Mas- 
sachusetts in  1810,  and  has  since  reached  great  perfection.  The  fact, 
that  in  177G,  when  nails  were  made  by  hand,  it  took  an  entire  day  to 
turn  out  six  pounds  of  nails,  and  that  now  one  thousand  pounds  are 
completed  in  the  same  time,  will  give  an  idea  of  the  improvement 
which  has  been  effected  in  this  industry.  Many  persons  are  puzzled 


5)4  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

to  understand  the  meaning  of  tho  terms  by  which  the  various  sizes  of 
'nails  are  distinguished,  such  as  "  tenpenny,"  "  fourpenny,"  etc. 
"Fourpeuny  "  signifies  four  pounds  weight  to  the  one  thousand  nails  ; 
* 'sixpenny"  six  pounds  to  the  thousand,  and  so  on.  It  is  an  English 
term,  and  meant  at  first  "ten-pound,"  etc.,  which  was  afterwards 
clipped  to  "  ten-pun,"  and  from  that  degenerated  into  "  ten-penny." 
When  a  thousand  nails  weigh  less  than  a  pound,  they  are  called 
tacks,  brads,  etc.,  and  are  reckoned  by  the  ounce. 

NASTURTIUM. — Sometimes  called  Indian  cress  ;  used  as  a 
«alacL  The  buds  and  seed-pods  are  pickled  and  used  as  capers.  It  is 
•a  native  of  South  America.  They  are  gathered  in  August. 

NUTS. — The  nuts  which  may  be  considered  of  the  greatest 
commercial  value  are  the  hazel-nut,  black  Spanish,  the  Barcelona, 
the  Smyrna,  the  Jerusalem  filbert  and  the  common  filbert,  the  pea- 
nut, shellbark,  English  walnut,  chestnut,  hickory,  Pecan,  butternut, 
almond,  cocoauut  and  the  Brazil  or  Para  nut.  The  more  important 
are  spoken  of  separately  in  their  proper  place. 

NUTMEGS. — This  well-known  spice  is  the  kernel  of  a  fruit 
called  Myristica,  of  which  there  are  forty  different  species,  all  of  them 
of  tropical  growth,  and  native  to  South  America,  Asia  and  Madagas- 
car. The  Penang  Nutmeg  is  the  finest  and  best.  In  purchasing, 
those  are  the  best  quality  which  have  an  oily  appearance  and  are 
heavy  ;  light,  dry,  dull  kinds  should  be  avoided.  Various  ingenious 
methods  are  resorted  to  for  concealing  defective  nutmegs,  and  it  is 
said  they  are  perforated  and  boiled  in  order  to  extract  the  essential 
oil,  and  the  orifice  carefully  closed  to  avoid  detection  ;  but  they  may 
easily  be  told  by  their  light  weight.  Mace  and  nutmegs  are  used  as 
condiments,  and, to  some  extent,  in  medicinal  preparations.  The  an- 
nual consumption  of  nutmegs  in  the  United  States  is  estimated  to 
amount  in  value  to  $750,000.  The  nutmeg  trees  bear  fruit  nearly 
all  the  year  round,  are  very  fruitful,  bearing  from  three  thousand  to 
four  thousand  on  a  tree,  and  are  very  long-lived,  existing  from  sev- 
enty to  eighty  years.  As  an  article  of  commerce,  they  are  popular 
and  profitable.  An  extract  of  nutmeg,  used  for  flavoring  purposes, 
has  become  quite  popular  within  a  few  years. 

OATMEAL.— The  ground  grain  of  oats,  peculiarly  adapted  for 
human  food,  and  specially  conducive  to  a  healthy  and  vigorous  con- 
stitution. The  several  varieties  of  manufacture  are  distinguished  by 
the  terms  pin-head  cut,  rough-cut,  medium  and  fine-cut.  After  tin- 
grinding,  the  meal  is  passed  through  sieves,  and  the  siftings  graded 
according  to  size.  It  would  be  well  for  grocers  to  remember  that,  in 
a  certain  sense,  oatmeal  is  a  perishable  article.  By  exposure  to  the 
air  for  a  few  weeks,  it  becomes  old,  rank,  and  acquires  a  bitter,  di--;:- 
greeable  taste.  In  the  oatmeal  mills  a  sort  of  funnel,  air-tight,  c;c- 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  95 

tends  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  mill,  in  which  the  oatmeal  is 
packed.  In  keeping  oatmeal  in  stores,  it  must  be  protected  from  the 
air  ;  packing  in  air-tight  boxes  or  paper  bags  will  preserve  it.  The 
i;>e  of  oatmeal  is  rapidly  increasing  in  our  large  towns  and  cities,  un- 
der the  influence  of  the  universal  approbation  of  physicians  and  medical 
experts,  though  it  is  not  so  extensively  consumed  in  this  country  as 
in  many  of  the  European  countries.  The  Scotch  oatmeal  is  consid- 
ered the  best,  and  it  is  a  staple  article  of  diet  in  that  country.  The 
grain  is  very  rich  in  gluten  and  fat,  and  contains  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  starch  and  sugar,  being  everywhere  recognized  as  a  valuable 
food.  It  cannot  be  leavened  into  bread,  but  it  makes  good  cakes. 

GROATS — Are  the  whole  kernel  of  the  oat  when  freed  from  its 
husk ;  it  is  boiled  in  milk  or  water  for  the  preparation  of  gruel, 
and  requires  a  long  time  to  thoroughly  cook  it. 

OILS  (VEGETABLE).— The  liquid  vegetable  oils  are  very 
numerous  ;  first  in  rank,  from  a  commercial  point  of  view,  is  Olive- 
oil,  made  from  the  ripe  fruit  of  the  common  olive ;  when  good  and 
fresh,  it  is  of  a  pale,  greenish-yellow  color,  almost  free  from  smell  or 
taste,  except  a  sweetish,  nutty  flavor,  much  esteemed  by  those  who 
use  it.  The  culture  of  the  olive  is  one  of  the  chief  commercial  re- 
sources of  the  countries  of  Southern  Europe  and  the  Northern  States 
of  Africa.  It  has  been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  times,  and  is  com- 
monly mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  The  finest  qualities  are  Prov- 
ence oil,  Florence  oil  and  Lucca  oil.  Common  kinds  are  easily  de- 
tected by  their  brownish  color  and  disagreeable  smell ;  those  are  used 
for  cooking.  The  Genoa  is  used  for  the  same  purpose  in  Europe, 
and  the  Gallipoli,  which  is  still  more  inferior,  is  used  in  cloth-dress- 
ing, Turkey-red  dyeing,  and  other  manufacturing  purposes.  The 
high  price  of  the  best  qualities  makes  adulteration  very  tempting. 
The  finest  quality  is  obtained  by  gently  pressing  the  fruit.  All  of  the 
other  liquid  vegetable  oils  are  obtained  from  seeds.  Very  large  quan- 
tities of  cotton-seed  oil  are  exported  from  here  to  the  south  of  France 
and  other  countries,  and  imported  again  as  olive-oil.  The  manufac- 
ture of  olive-oil  must  be  commenced  in  the  first  half  of  November, 
because  the  fruit  ripens  at  this  time  in  Provence.  When  it  is  once 
begun,  it  must  be  continued  uninterruptedly,  day  and  night,  until  the 
close  of  the  harvest.  According  to  circumstances,  the  harvest  may 
continue  during  three  or  four  months.  Before  the  olives  are  brought 
to  the  mill,  they  have  been  previously  carefully  spread  out  upon  the 
floors  of  well-ventilated  storehouses,  where  they  are  allowed  to  remain 
for  three  days,  if  the  wind  is  south,  and  for  four  or  five  days  if  the 
wind  is  north. 

The  first  operation  consists  in  crushing  the  olives  between  two 
granite  stones  turning  against  each  other  vertically.  The  mass  is 
then  transferred  in  rush  baskets  to  an  iron  press,  where  it  is  sub- 


96  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

jectcrl  t'>  a  very  gentle  pressure.  This  produces  the  so-called  virgin 
oil  (//••? .'/'••  I'icrfje),  to  which  the  Provence  oils  owe  their  great  reputa- 
tion. After  this  first  pressing,  the  mass  in  the  baskets  is  again  com- 
minuted or  broken  up,  and  again  subjected  to  a  somewhat  stronger 
pressure  in  a  lever  press.  The  product  constitutes  the  well-known 
commercial  finest  oil.  The  mass  is  now  removed  from  the  baskets, 
and  again  transferred  to  the  mill  where  it  is  completely  ground  up, 
when  it  is  once  more  packed  into  the  baskets,  and  subjected  to  hy- 
draulic pressure.  During  this  latter  operation,  the  effect  of  partial 
fermentation  is  utilized  by  pouring  boiling  water  on  the  mass,  in  order 
to  facilitate  the  separation  of  the  oil.  By  this  method  of  manipula- 
tion, not  only  a  larger  yield  of  oil  is  obtained,  but,  at  the  same  time, 
the  deterioration  of  the  larger  portion  of  the  oil  contained  in  the  olives 
is  prevented,  because  only  the  very  last  pressing  is  performed  with 
the  aid  of  heat.  And  the  last  product  is  even  superior  to  that  ob- 
tained from  fermented  olives,  since  the  latter  assume  frequently  a 
musty,  putrid  odor,  which  may  contaminate  the  oil  of  the  first  press- 
ing— a  drawback  which  is  obviated  by  using  hot  water.  The  aggre- 
gate annual  importation  of  olive-oil  into  the  United  States  has  been 
computed  to  amount  to  195,000  gallons,  valued  at  $153,000. 

SALAD  OIL  OR  SWEET  OIL — Is  the  name  applied  to  olive-oil  after 
being  purified  by  settling,  filtering,  washing  and  by  various  chemical 
operations.  Of  this  salad  oil,  the  importations  are  calculated  in  round 
numbers  to  be  not  less  than  197,500  gallons,  valued  at  S356,UOO. 
Much  of  the  table  oil  imported  from  France  is  adulterated  with  lard 
oil  obtained  from  the  United  States,  and  reshipped  as  Oil  of  Lucca  or 
Provence.  It  is  also  largely  adulterated  with  the  oil  from  the  com- 
mon peanut,  which  is  grown  in  Northern  Africa  for  that  special 
purpose. 

RAPE  OIL — Is  the  name  which  commonly  covers  the  product 
of  several  descriptions  of  seeds,  such  as  rape,  turnip  and  radish  seed. 
The  oil  is  of  a  clear  brown  color,  sweet,  with  a  mustard-like  flavor  ; 
it  is  extensively  used  for  dressing  wool,  and  its  illuminating  power  is 
excellent.  It  is  often  sold  as  olive-oil. 

HEMP-SEED — Yields  a  green  oil,  and  is  extensively  used  in  Hol- 
land in  the  manufacture  of  soft  soap.  In  Russia  it  is  used  with  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  food,  and  is  greatly  liked  by  all  classes. 

OILS  (COMMERCIAL)  .—WHALE  or  SPERM  OIL  is  obtained 
from  the  whale,  the  finest  oil  being  taken  from  the  reservoir  behind 
the  head.  The  oil  of  the  sperm  whale  is  of  superior  quality,  and 
known  to  the  trade  as  Sperm  Oil. 

TALLOW — Is  a  solid  animal  oil  produced  from  the  fat  of  cattle 
and  sheep. 

LARD  OIL — Is  a  pale  yellowish  or  nearly  colorless  liquid,  ob- 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  97 

tained  from  lard,  etc.,  used   chiefly  as  a  lubricant,  and   also  in   the 
adulteration  of  olive-oil. 

OLEOMARGARINE— Sometimes  called  ARTIFICAL  BUTTER 
OR  SCENE,  was  first  brought  into  existence  by  the  French  chemist, 
Mege.  Its  introduction  into  this  country  was  bitterly  opposed,  both 
by  the  trade,  the  public,  and  the  press  generally  throughout  the  Union. 
Laws  have  been  passed  in  several  States  obliging  .those  who  sell  it  to 
brand  all  packages  plainly  as  Oleomargarine.  Jt  is  made  of  clean, 
fresh  fat,  because  it  would  be  almost  impossible,  and  would  entnil 
considerable  expense,  to  make  a  creditable  article  out  of  fats  having 
the  least  taint.  One  establishment  in  New  York  city  turns  out  more 
oleomargarine  than  the  whole  State  of  New  York  does  of  butter. 
Many  factories  now  exist  in  all  parts  of  the  Union.  A  brief  descrip- 
tion of  the  composition  of  oleomargarine  may  be  of  interest :  Butter 
contains  the  three  fats — Oleine,  Palmitine  and  Stearine.  The  same 
is  true  of  suet,  with  the  exception  of  less  oleine,  and  by  removing 
the  excess  of  palatine  and  stearine,  a  mixed  fat  remains  of  the  con- 
sistence of  butter ;  this  fat  or  oleomargarine  is  then  poured  into  a 
churn,  while  still  liquid,  with  about  half  its  volume  of  fresh  milk  and 
nearly  as  much  water.  A  little  annatto  is  then  added  for  coloring, 
and  the  whole  is  then  churned,  yielding  a  butter  which  is  treated  in 
the  same  way  as  ordinary  butter. 

OLIVES. — Olives,  in  different  varieties,  are  grown  in  almost 
every  country.  Used  as  a  pickle,  they  are  effective  iq,  promoting  di- 
gestion. The  fruit  is  produced  in  great  profusion  ;  and,  consequently, 
an  olive  tree  increases' in  value  proportionately  with  its  age.  It  is 
chiefly  from  the  covering  of  the  fruit  that  the  oil  is  obtained,  and  not 
from  the  seed,  as  is  the  general  rule  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Olive- 
oil  is  extensively  used  as  an  article  of  food  in  the  countries  where  it 
is  produced,  and,  to  a  smaller  extent,  in  countries  to  which  it  is  ex- 
ported for  medicinal  and  other  uses.  Olives  gathered  before  they 
are  quite  ripe  are  pickled  in  various  ways  ;  they  are,  first  of  all, 
steeped  in  lime  water,  by  which  they  are  rendered  much  milder  in 
taste.  They  are  generally  considered  disagreeable  at  first,  but  soon 
become  a  relish,  and  in  many  parts  of  Southern  Europe,  are  consid- 
ered a  valuable  article  of  food— dried  as  well  as  pickled  olives  being 
used.  The  wood  of  the  olive  tree  is  of  great  value,  being  beautifully 
streaked,  and  capable  of  being  highly  polished.  A  gum  resin  is  ob- 
tained from  the  old  stems,  which  much  resembles  the  storax  ;  it  has 
an  odor  like  vanilla,  and  is  often  substiuted  for  that  flavor,  and  used 
as  such  in  perfumes. 

ONION. — A  common  garden  vegetable,  cultivated  in  great  va- 
riety, and  supplied  to  the  markets  nearly  all  the  year  round.  The  field 
onions  are  dug  in  August,  and  allowed  to  remain  on  the  ground  for 


98  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

two  or  three  weeks  till  they  are  thoroughly  dried,  and  then  packed 
away  in  a  cool,  dry  place.  Our  early  markets  are  supplied  with  ripe 
onions  from  the  Bermuda  Islands,  and  they  are  of  excellent  quality. 
The  use  of  the  onion  is  very  general  in  most  parts  of  the  world 
as  an  adjunct  in  cookery,  for  soups,  broths  and  the  like.  Many  va- 
rieties are  also  palatable  when  cooked  as  vegetables  by  themselves. 
The  strong  smell  and  taste  of  onions  is  due  to  a  pungent,  volatile  oil, 
rich  in  sulphur.  Moderate-sized  onicns  contain  ninety-one  per  cent, 
of  water.  Grown  in  warm  places,  the  onion  is  milder  and  sweeter 
than  when  grown  in  colder  climates. 

But  a  few  years  ago  the  principal  part  of  the  onions  raised  in 
this  country  for  market  were  produced  in  Massachusetts.  Five  or 
ten  years  ago,  a  buyer,  by  spending  a  day  or  two  in  Essex  county,  in 
the  fall  of  the  year,  could  form  a  pretty  correct  opinion  of  the 
onion  crop  of  the  country,  the  probable  /price,  and  all  the  necessary 
facts  to  form  a  judgment  of  the  future  of  the  trade.  Now  this  has  all 
changed.  Less  onions  are  raised  in  Massachusetts  than  formerly, 
and  the  supply  from  various  other  points  has  increased  greatly,  while 
the  facilities  for  cheap  and  rapid  transportation  have  made  impossible 
any  very  wide  fluctuation  in  the  general  market. 

Western  farmers,  in  some  sections,  have  paid  increased  attention 
to  the  onion  crop.  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut  now  raises  large  crops 
of  onions,  mostly  of  the  red  variety,  for  the  New  York  market.  Thus, 
while  but  a  few  years  since  Massachusetts  supplied  most  of  the  Atlantic 
cities  with  onions,  now  the  trade  has  been  usurped  by  producers  from 
other  States.  Boston  market  demands  chiefly  yellow  onions  ;  in  New- 
York  red  onions  sell  nearly  as  well  as  white  or  yellow ;  in  Halifax 
and  St.  John,  red  onions  have  the  preference.  There  is  but  little 
difference  in  the  quality,  and  the  choice  is  largely  a  matter  of  taste  or 
fancy.  Western  farmers  raise  chiefly  the  yellow  variety.  But  few 
western  onions  are  shipped  so  far  east  as  New  England,  except  when 
prices  are  very  high,  since  they  come  directly  in  competition  with  the 
Massachusetts  supply  ;  yet  the  western  affect  prices,  and  prevent  any 
material  advance  in  our  home  lots,  besides  restricting  the  sale  of  our 
onions. 

The  first  new  onions  are  received  about  May  1st  from  Bermuda. 
They  formerly  came  packed  in  palm-leaf  hampers,  holding  from  one- 
half  to  one  bushel  each,  but  now  they  are  freighted  in  wooden  boxes, 
holding  about  one  bushel  each.  The  onions  are  large  and  flat,  of  a 
yellowish  red  color,  though  not  of  so  deep  a  red  as  specimens  of  that 
variety  grown  in.  this  country.  Bermuda  onions  are  sweet,  and  make 
excellent  eating.  Following  this  supply  comes  the  Virginia  crops  of 
onions,  shipped  about  June  loth.  Few  onions  are  exported  from  Bos- 
ton, except  to  the  British  Provinces. 

Onions,  to  keep  well,  must  be  well  matured,  with  their  topa 
properly  dried  off",  and  then  stored  in  a  cool  place.  Small  white  and 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  99 

yellow  unions,  for  pickling,  are  culled  out  of  the  regular  growth, 
find  sometimes  sell  as  low  as  fifty  cents  to  one  dollar  per  barrel,  al- 
though when  really  scarce  they  command  nearly  as  much  as  the 
larger  samples.  Small  onions  should  never  be  packed  with  the  mar- 
ketable lots.  ., 

ORANGE. — The  Orange  (fruit)  is  a  large  thick-rinded  berry, 
separated  into  numerons  divisions  by  membraneous  partitions,  each 
rontaining  a  few  seeds  surrounded  by  large  cells  filled  with  juice. 
The  leaves  and  flowers  of  the  orange  tree  or  shrub  abound  in  aro- 
matic oils,  and  the  pulp  of  the  fruit  contains  citric  acid,  All  species 
of  the  orange  are  natives  of  tropical  India,  and  by  cultivation  have 
become  domesticated  throughout  the  warmer  portions  of  the  globe. 
The  sweet  and  bitter  oranges  are  not  distinguishable  by  any  impor- 
tant botanical  properties ;  the  bitter  fruit  has  a  rougher  rind,  which 
is  of  a  deep  reddish  color,  and  its  juice  is  more  sour  and  bitter  ;  all 
parts  of  the  bitter  orange  are  more  strongly  aromatic  than  the 
corresponding  parts  in  the  sweet  orange.  The  orange  was  introduced 
into  Arabia  and  Syria,  from  which  it  found  its  way  to  Italy,  Sicily 
and  Spain,  about  the  eleventh  century  ;  apparently  the  bitter  orange 
was  first  introduced,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  sweet  was 
not  cultivated  until  the  fifteenth  century.  The  first  importation  of 
oranges  into  England  was  in  1290,  in  a  cargo  of  assorted  fruit  from 
Spain.  The  time  required  after  blossoming,  for  the  orange  to  mature, 
varies  in  different  climates  ;  it  is  at  least  six  months,  and  sometimes 
longer.  In  Italy  the  fruit  that  goes  into  commerce  is  picked  as  soon 
iis  mature  and  yet  green,  while  that  reserved  for  home-use  hangs  on 
the  tree  all  winter,  and  is  in  its  greatest  perfection  the  following  spring 
and  summer.  The  Seville  orange  of  commerce  is  a  bitter  variety, 
not  common  in  our  markets  ;  its  chief  consumption  is  in  making  mar- 
malade, and  its  rind  is  used  as  a  tonic  aromatic  in  several  medicinal 
preparations  ;  the  peel  is  also  candied  and  used  in  flavoring  puddings 
and  other  cookery.  The  ordinary  oranges  of  commerce  are  sub-vari- 
ties  of  the  sweet  orange,  although  they  differ  greatly  in  sweetness, 
and  are  distinguished  by  the  names  of  the  countries  producing  them, 
or  the  ports  whence  they  are  shipped : — the  Messina,  St.  Michael's, 
Maltese  arid  other  oranges  from  the  south  of  Europe,  are  medium- 
sized,  smooth,  rather  thin-skinned,  and  somewhat  flattened  fruit,  with 
an  abundant  but  not  very  sweet  juice  ;  these  are  imported  in  boxes, 
each  orange  being  wrapped  in  soft  paper.  The  St.  Michael's  orange  is 
needless,  and  the  blood  orange  of  Malta  has  a  crimson  pulp.  The 
Mandarin  or  noble  orange  which  originated  in  China,  is  one  of  the 
most  highly  esteemed  of  all  the  varieties,  and  when  occasionally 
offered  in  our  markets  it  brings  the  highest  price  ;  it  is  a  small,  flat- 
tened, smooth  fruit,  of  a  rich  color  ;  the  rind,  when  the  fruit  is  fully 
ripe,  separates  spontaneously  from  the  pulp,  which  is  exceeding  rich 
.and  agrconhk'.  In  China  it  is  held  in  high  regard,  and  is  used  as 


100  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

presents  to  the  mandarins ;  it  was  introduced  into  Europe  early  in 
the  present  century,  and  is  now  cultivated  in  Algeria,  the  Azores, 
Brazil  and  other  countries. 

The  Havana  oranges,  which  also  come  from  other  parts  of  the 
West  Indies,  are  large,  often  rough-skinned,  and  very  sweet ;  as  they 
are  imported  in  bulk,  they  are  packed  in  a  very  green  state,  and  are 
rarely  seen  in  the  market  in  their  best  condition.  A  similar  orange 
from  Florida,  having  a  shorter  voyage  and  gathered  when  more 
nearly  ripe,  is  generally  of  a  better  quality.  The  navel  orange  of 
Brazil,  rarely  offered  for  sale,  is  of  superior  excellence  ;  it  is  usually 
seedless,  very  sweet,  and  has  often  a  small  protuberance  at  the  upper 
end,  from  which  it  receives  its  name.  The  myrtle-leaved  orange, 
which  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  a  variety  of  commerce,  is  sold  by 
the  florists  for  a  table  decoration.  The  chief  use  of  the  orange  is  as- 
a  dessert  fruit,  and  to  afford  a  refreshing  beverage  in  fevers.  The 
flowers  of  the  orange,  on  account  of  their  charming  fragrance  and  pure 
whiteness,  are  considered  essential  to  the  bridal  wreath,  and  the  trees 
are  cultivated  by  florists  solely  for  their  flowers.  By  distillation  with 
water,  orange  flowers  afford  an  essential  oil,  and  the  water  from 
which  this  is  separated  is  sold  as  orange-flower  water,  which  is  used 
in  pharmacy  to  flavor  mixtures.  The  oil  of  orange  peel,  or  oil  of 
orange,  as  it  is  known  in  commerce,  is  contained  in  the  rind  of  the 
fruit ;  though  a  volatile  oil,  it  is  obtained  by  pressure.  The  method* 
of  cultivating  the  orange  differ  but  little.  '  In  this  country  the  orange 
is  cultivated  as  an  object  of  profit  in  Florida,  Louisiana  and  Southern 
California  ;  Texas  and  some  other  States  produce  a  small  number  for 
home  consumption.  In  various  parts  of  Florida  there  are  immense 
groves  of  wild  oranges.  In  Florida  there  are  three  methods  of  es- 
tablishing an  orange  grove — to  clear  up  a  wild  grove,  removing  all 
trees  not  needed,  and  budding  with  sweet  fruit  those  that  remain  ;  tx> 
take  up  young  wild  trees  and  set  them  in  prepared  ground,  and  then 
bud  them  ;  and  to  raise  stocks  from  seed,  bud  them  in  nursery  rows, 
and  when  of  sufficient  size  set  them  in  the  plantation.  The  Jesuit 
missionaries  early  introduced  the  orange  into  the  gardens  of  the  mis- 
sion stations  of  Southern  California.  The  American  settlers  soon 
extended  the  culture  of  oranges,  and  it  is  now  one  of  the  principal 
industries  of  Los  Angeles  and  its  vicinity.  In  England,  orange  cul- 
ture became  popular  in  the  seventeenth  century.  The  imports  of 
oranges  into  the  United  States  from  the  Mediterranean  and  West  India 
ports  are  very  large.  Every  grocer  keeps  in  stock  this  luscious  fruit. 

OYSTER. — The  oyster  is  a  marine  acephalous  mollusk  of  the 
genus  ostrea.  Oysters  are  found  in  almost  all  seas,  usually  in  from 
two  to  six  fathoms  of  water,  and  never  at  a  great  distance  from  the 
shore.  They  are  especially  fond  of  tranquil  waters,  or  the  gulf's 
formed  by  the  mouths  of  great  rivers.  They  cannot  live  in  fresh 
water,  but  some  species  remain  dry  during  the  greater  part  of  every 


THE    GROCERS    COMPANION.  101 

tide.  The  tree  oysters,  which  attach  themselves  to  mangrove  and 
other  bushes  in  the  tropics,  enclese  within  the  shells  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity to  keep  up  the  respiratory  currents.  Oysters  have  been  highly 
esteemed  as  food  from  the  times  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  to  the 
present  day ;  they  are  of  easy  digestion,  but  not  very  nutritious,  and 
act  rather  as  a  provocative  to  appetite  than  as  a  satisfy  ing  food.  They 
ure  eaten  all  the  year  round,  except  in  "the  months  without  the  it" 
(May,  June,  July  and  August),  which  is  the  spawning  season  ;  and 
they  are  good  even  then.  The  common  oyster  of  Europe,  abundant 
on  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain  and  France,  occurs  in  large  banks  or 
beds,  sometimes  extending  for  miles,  usually  on  rocky  bottoms  ;  from 
about  the  middle  of  May  to  the  middle  of  August,  they  are  dredged 
from  the  bottom  by  a  kind  of  iron  rake,  drawn  by  a  boat  under  full 
sail,  several  hundreds  being  taken  at  a  single  haul ;  these  arc  trans- 
ferred to  Artificial  beds  or  parks,  where  they  are  preserved  for  sale, 
continually  growing  in  size  and  improving  in  flavor.  The  growth  of 
the  oyster  is  slow,  it  being  only  as  large  as  a  half  dollar  at  the  end 
of  four  to  six  months,  and  twice  that  size  at  the  end  of  a  year.  The 
west  coast  of  Scotland  and  Hebrides  have  the  best  oysters  of  the 
British  coasts,  and  here  in  sheltered  bays  they  acquire  the  green  color 
so  esteemed  by  the  epicure,  and  supposed  to  be  due  to  conferva;,  and 
similar  colored  growths  in  the  breeding  places  ;  other  English  beds 
extend  from  Gravesend,  on  the  Thames,  along  the  Kent  coast,  and 
in  the  estuaries  of  the  Colne  and  other  rivers  along  the  Essex  coast. 
The  British  beds  are  kept  up  by  careful  culture  and  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  broods  from  all  quarters ;  since  1872  several  varieties  of 
American  oysters  have  been  introduced.  Not  many  years  ago 
the  beds  of  France  were  nearly  exhausted,  but  have  since  been  re- 
stocked, and  now  the  culture  is  yearly  extending  along  the  entire  At- 
lantic and  Mediterranean  coasts  of  that  country.  The  Danish  cfoast 
is  well  supplied  with  beds.  The  Neapolitan  Lake  Fusaro,  is  the 
great  oyster  park  of  Italy.  The  species  most  esteemed  in  America 
ure  the  Virginian  oyster  (  Virginiana)  and  the  northern  oyster  (bore- 
•alis) .  In  the  Virginian  oyster  the  shell  is  elongated  and  narrow, 
and  the  backs  pointed  and  not  much  curved  ;  it  often  measures  twelve 
to  fifteen  inches  in  length,  but  is  seldom  more  than  three  inches  in 
length.  This  is  the  common  oyster  from  Chesapeake  Bay  south- 
ward ;  it  is  sometimes  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston,  and  also  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  St.  Lawrence ;  it  multiplies  so  rapidly  on 
some  of  the  low  shores  of  the  southern  coast  as  to  impede  navigation 
and  to  change  the  course  of  tidal  currents.  In  the  northern  oyster 
the  shell  is  more  rounded  and  curved  ;  the  surface  is  very  irregular, 
with  the  margins  more  or  less  scalloped  ;  a  common  size  is  five  or 
six  inches  long,  but  it  grows  to  the  length  of  a  foot,  and  to  a  width 
of  six  inches.  This  is  the  common  New  York  oyster,  said  also  for- 
merly to  have  been  very  abundant  in  Massachusetts  Bay. 


102  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

Boston  market  is  supplied  principally  from  artificial  beds  derived 
from  the  Virginia  and  New  York  oysters ;  large  quantities  of  the 
Providence  River  oysters  are  also  consumed  in  Boston,  they  being 
considered  the  best  and  commanding  a  high  price.  The  flats  in  the 
vicinity  of  our  maratime  cities  are  generally  thickly  beset  with  poles 
indicating  the  localities  of  the  oyster  beds.  The  principal  sources  of 
supply  are  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  the  coast  of  New  Jersey,  Long 
Island  Sound,  the  Providence  River  and  "VVareham,  Mass.  For- 
merly the  northern  beds  were  almost  wholly  kept  up  by  the  restock- 
ing them  with  bed  oysters  from  Chesapeake  Bay  and  from  the  Hudson 
River,  but  of  late  years  the  spat  is  secured  at  spawning  time,  and 
new  ground  is  brought  under  cultivation,  until  the  area  of  the  oyster 
beds  in  Long  Island  Sound  is  now  computed  by  miles  rather  than 
acres.  "Wareham  oysters  principally  fiud  a  market  in  the  city  of 
Boston,  at  which  place  they  bring  the  highest  market  price.  These 
oysters  have  a  peculiar  flavor  which  is  not  found  in  oysters  from  any 
other  place.  The  oysters  that  grow  on  the  grants  in  the  Marion 
River,  a  few  miles  from  Wareham,  are  not  considered  by  epicur- 
eans so  finely  flavored  as  those  grown  on  the  Wareham  grants,  and 
it  is  generally  known  that  they  do  not  bring  so  high  a  price  in  the 
market.  The  oysters  raised  near  Buzzard's  Bay,  Cohasset  Narrows, 
are  the  same  in  flavor  as  those  from  the  river  grants  in  Wareham, 
and  bring  about  the  same  price,  although  the  meat  is  not  so  fat  and 
white  in  appearance.  It  is,  however,  just  as  palatable  and  as  anx- 
iously sought  after.  The  oyster  beds  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay  cover 
an  area  of  over  three  thousand  square  miles,  and  the  annual  yield  of 
oysters  from  these  alone  is  estimated  at  upwards  of  thirty  million 
bushels,  valued  at  $15,000,000.  The  total  oyster  trade  from  Maine 
to  California  has  been  valued  at  $60,000,000  annually. 

The  oysters,  after  being  taken  from  their  beds,  are  for  the  most 
part  carried  to  large  oyster  houses,  where  several  hundred  people  are 
employed  in  opening  them  and  packing  them  for  the  markets.  They 
are  put  up  either  in  cans  or  in  bulk,  and  are  of  several  grades,  the 
best  being  known  as  selects;  following  which  come  standards  and 
various  lower  grades. 

Oysters  may  be  eaten  raw  (when  they  are  easily  and  rapidly  di- 
gested), or  cooked  in  a  dozen  different  ways — roasted,  stewed, 
broiled,  fried,  scolloped,  etc.,  and  in  whatever  way  they  are  eaten, 
will  be  found  a  delicate,  nourishing  and  delicious  dish,  a  fit  article  of 
diet  for  the  invalid  or  the  healthy,  for  the  child  or  the  adult. 

OYSTER  PLANT. — The  oyster  plant  is  a  vegetable,  the  roots  of 
which  are  boiled  or  stewed  like  carrots,  or  half- boiled,  or  grated  fine, 
made  into  small  flat  balls,  dipped  in  batter  and  fried  like  oysters, 
•which  they  strongly  resemble.  The  young  flower-stalks,  if  cut  in  the 
spring  of  the  second  year  and  dressed  like  asparagus,  resemble  it  in. 
taste. 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  103 

PACKAGES  (EMPTY) . — Empty  packages  are  returnable  by 
many  freight  lines  without  charge.  In  reference  to  oil  and  liquor 
packages,  we  would  remark  that  retail  grocers  and  others,  who  retail 
coal-oil  or  burning  oils  of  any  kind,  and  do  not  destroy  the  brand- 
marks  of  the  inspector,  arc  liable  to  a  fine  of  $300  for  each  and  every 
brand  or  package  not  destroyed  or  defaced  ;  and  retailers  of  liquors 
are  under  a  similar  penalty  in  like  cases.  This  duty  is  often  omitted 
through  carelessness,  and  instances  are  known  of  a  dozen  dealers  in 
a  single  town  incurring  penalties  of  from  $50  to  $300  each,  by  the 
accidental  visit  of  a  government  detective  happening  to  look  in  on  the 
town. 

PADDY. — This  is  a  name  commonly  applied  to  rice  before  the 
hull  has  been  beaten  off.  This  is  the  form  in  which  it  is  brought 
into  the  southern  cities,  where  large  mills  are  erected,  whose  business 
is  confined  to  rice  cleaning.  On  the  plantations  the  hulls  are  beaten 
off  the  paddy  by  pounding  and  rubbing  it  in  a  mortar  with  a  large 
wooden  pestle,  and  this  primitive  operation  involves  great  labor.  A 
band-mill  to  clean  rice  would  be  worth  millions  to  its  inventor,  but 
thousands  of  attempts  at  inventing  one,  have  as  yet,  proved  unsuc- 
cessful. 

PAILS. — Wooden  vessels,  of  different  shapes  and  sizes,  now 
made  by  machinery,  .and  varying  in  price  from  the  best  brass-bound 
cedar  stock  to  the  cheapest  two-hoop  soft  pine  article.  They  should 
be  kept  out  of  the  sun,  as  they  are  liable  to  slacken  (especially  the 
cheaper  grades)  and  fall  apart. 

PALM -01 L. — Palm-Oil  is  made  from  the  fruit  of  the  palm- 
tree,  universally  admitted  to  be  one  of  the  best  materials  for  soap 
making.  A  soap  made  purely  of  palm-oil,  with  barely  enough  al- 
kali to  produce  saponification,  is  very  superior  for  the  toilet  use  and 
the  bath,  for  shaving,  and  the  teeth.  Very  little  of  the  soap  that  is 
manufactured,  advertised  and  sold  under  the  title  of  Palm-8O»p,  is 
really  genuine.  It  is  mainly  imported  from  Africa,  and  especially 
from  Liberia. 

PAPER. — Paper,  of  all  kinds,  especially  that  used  by  the  gro- 
cer, such  as  straw  wrapping-paper,  is  sold  by  the  number  of  sheets, 
and  is  most  frequently  short  of  the  professed  quantity.  An  excellent 
water-proof  paper  has  lately  appeared  in  the  market,  specially  made 
for  wrapping  of  butter,  lard  or  any  greasy  or  wet  material.  It  is 
made  of  thin,  transparent  paper,  dipped  in  a  solution  of  some  kind 
of  wax  or  paraffine.  Straw  paper  should  be  kept  in  the  cellar,  or 
where  it  will  not  dry  out,  as  it  becomes  very  brittle  when  too  dry. 
Wrapping-paper  is  generally  made  from  straw,  flax,  hemp,  inanilla 
and  rags.  It  is  packed  for  market  in  bundles,  and  sold  cither  by  the 


104  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

ream  or  by  the  pound.  Paper  sacks  and  bags  are  manufactured  by 
machinery,  and  immense  quantities  are  used  by  the  retail  trade. 

Two  kinds  of  wood  pulp  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  printing 
paper,  respectively  designated  as  "  mechanical  pulp"  and  "  chemical 
pulp."  Any  ordinary  wood  which  is  fibrous,  free  from  knots  and 
decay,  and  is  easily  disintegrated,  is  suitable  for  making  chemical 
pulp,  though  the  whiter  the  wood  and  the  less  acid  it  contains  the 
better.  The  wood  is  cut  into  small  pieces,  diagonally  with  the  grain, 
by  revolving  knives,  just  as  logwood  is  cut  for  dyeing  purposes.  It 
is  then  treated  with  a  superheated  bath  of  caustic  alkali,  then  bleached, 
and  afterward  subjected  to  the  same  processes  as  are  clean  rags.  In 
making  mechanical  pulp,  no  chemicals  are  used — not  even  lime.  Any 
ordinary  white  wood  is  suitable  for  the  purpose,  but  poplar  is  pre- 
ferred, although  the  dark  heart  is  not  used.  Water  power  is  used, 
and  it  is  estimated  that  one  cord  of  wood,  with  two  stones  or  emery 
wheels,  and  thirty-horse  power,  will  produce  the  equivalent  of  from 
one  thousand  to  twelve  hundred  pounds  of  dry  pulp  per  day,  with  the 
labor  of  three  men — one  to  -attend  to  barking  and  sawing  the  wood, 
one  to  attend  the  stones,  and  one  to  look  after  the  pulp.  The  wood 
is  used  soon  after  it  is  cut,  or,  if  seasoned,  it  must  be  steamed.  The 
sticks  are  pressed  endwise  against  the  stones  or  wheels,  and  with  a 
bountiful  supply  of  water  they  are  literally  ground  to  pulp,  thus  .de- 
stroying the  fibre.  Unlike  the  chemically-prepared  article,  this  pulp 
is  not  allowed  to  dry  before  being  used.  The  damp  sheets  are  folded, 
packed  in  bundles  and  sold,  with  an  allowance  of  forty  per  cent,  for 
the  moisture.  To  manufacture  paper  from  it,  the  addition  of  some 
kind  of  fibre  is  essential — say  from  twenty  to  eighty  per  cent.,  accord- 
ing to  the  kind  of  paper  required.  Good  printing  paper  is  made  from 
the  chemical  pulp  without  the  addition  of  any  other  fibre,  and  the  u^e 
of  it  is  desirable  in  making  even  the  best  book  paper.  Some  excel- 
lent book  paper  is  made  of  forty  per  cent,  of  this  pulp,  and  the  print- 
ing paper  now  being  used  by  the  government  is  made  wholly  of  white 
spruce  pulp.  Machinery  of  the  capacity  for  making,  say  seven  thou- 
sand pounds  of  rag  paper  per  day,  will  turn  out  from  twelve  thousand 
to  thirteen  thousand  pounds  per  day,  if  forty  to  fifty  per  cent,  of  pulp 
is  used.  At  the  present  time,  chemical  pulp  is  almost  as  expensive 
as  rags  in  manufacturing  ordinary  printing  paper. 

To  the  various  raw  materials  already  employed  in  manufacturing 
paper,  such  as  rags,  esparto,  straw  and  wood,  all  of  which  are  ex- 
pensive, a  new  and  cheaper  one,  namely,  white  moss,  will  shortly  be 
added.  This  moss  is  found  in  immense  quantities  in  Norway  and 
Sweden,  but  it  is  not  the  living  plant  as  it  grows  in  the  fields  which 
is  used  for  making  paper,  but  the  remains  of  this  kind  of  moss,  which 
has  gradually  accumulated  in  the  woods.  The  mouldering  which  the 
rnoss  has  gradually  undergone,  constitutes  a  preparation  for  the  paper 
manufacture  made  by  nature  herself.  Near  the  place  in  Swedeu 


THE    GROCERS  COMPANION.  105 

where  the  first  factory  is  now  building,  examination  lias  shown  that 
many  millions  of  pounds  of  this  raw  material  are  to  be  found,  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  to  support  a  large  manufactory  for  a  number  of  years. 
Paper  of  different  thicknesses  and  pasteboard,  made  of  the  white 
moss,  are  shown,  the  latter  even  in  sheets  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
thick.  It  is  harder  than  wood,  and  can  easily  be  painted  and  pol- 
ished. This  manufacture  is  well  suited  for  taking  the  place  of  wood 
tor  many  purposes.  It  has  all  the  good  qualities,  but  none  of  the  de- 
fects of  wood,  as  it  neither  cracks  nor  warps.  The  pasteboard  can, 
consequently,  be  used  for  door  and  window  frames,  for  architectural 
ornaments  or  all  kinds  of  furniture.  A  company,  founded  on  shares, 
has  been  formed  for  building  factories  in  Sweden,  as  well  as  in 
Norway. 

PAPER  BAGS. — There  are  many  different  varieties  of  bags 
in  the  market,  from  the  old-fashioned  hand-made  bags  to  the  square- 
bottom,  and  the  machine-made  square-bottom.  They  are  made  in 
all  qualities,  those  most  desirable  being  made  from  tough  manilla 
paper.  Formerly  it  was  the  practice  for  grocery's  clerks,  in  their 
leisure  hours,  to  cut  out  and  paste  together  strips  of  paper  for  bags  ; 
now  they  are  all  purchased  of  paper  dealers,  ready  made,  in  quanti- 
ties to  suit. 

PARAFFINE. — Paraffine  is  a  white  waxy  substance,  free 
from  taste  or  smell,  which  will  not  burn  except  in  conjunction  with  a 
wick,  when  it  gives  a  bright,  smokeless  flame.  It  is  these  qualifica- 
tions which  give  such  advantages  to  candles  made  from  it.  Large 
quantities  of  paraffine  are  used  for  the  apparently  trivial  and  unim- 
portant purpose  of  manufacturing  chewing-gum.  The  extent  to  which 
this  single  article  is  sold  by  wholesale  confectioners  must  be  simply 
enormous,  one  manufacturer  of  chewing  gum  alone  using  about  sev- 
enty thousand  pounds  of  paraffine  in  a  single  year.  Confectioners 
also  use  it  considerably  to  impart  to  certain  of  their  confections  a  high 
gloss  or  lustre.  Its  most  important  application  is  in  the  manufacture 
of  candles.  It  is  also  used  very  considerably  in  waterproofing  fabrics 
and  leather  for  shoes.  Dress  silks  are  frequently  treated  with  it, 
being  thus  protected  from  stains,  if  liquids  chance  to  be  spilled  upon 
them.  It  is  employed  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  manufacture  of 
electrical  apparatus,  being  valuable  for  its  high  resistance  to  the  pas- 
gage  of  the  electric  current. 

PARIS  GREEN. — Paris  Green  is  a  chemical  compound  very 
much  used  in  coloring  paint,  paper,  etc.,  especially  Avail  paper.  In 
paint  it  produces  one  of  the  finest  green  colors  possible  to  be  obtained. 
Its  use  on  wall  paper  has  been  much  condemned,  as  children  are  often 
poisoned  by  chewing  such  paper ;  and,  not  unfrequently,  people  are 
poisoned  by  inhaling  the  minute  particles  which  become  separated 
from  the  paper  so  colored,  and  float  about  the  room.  Since  the  ap- 


106  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

pearance  of  the  Colorado  potato  beetle,  Paris  Green  has  become  famil- 
iarly known  and  very  generally  used  throughout  the  entire  country, 
for  the  destruction  of  this  insect  pest.  For  this  purpose  it  is  mixed 
in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  Paris  green  to  twenty,  thirty  or  even 
more,  of  some  dry  substance,  such  as  gypsum  or  flour  ;  or  two  or 
thi-ee  spoonfuls  are  stirred  into  a  pail  of  water,  and  the  vines  are  then 
sprinkled  with  this  dry  or  wet  mixture.  Thus  employed,  it  is  very 
effective  in  destroying  the  beetle,  and  is  the  only  true  remedy  where 
the  insect  appears  in  great  numbers.  Strong  fears  wore  entertained, 
when  it  was  first  used  in  this  way,  that  ill  effects  would  rosult  from 
the  poison  being  absorbed  by  the  potato,  or  that  wells  in  the  vicinity 
would  become  poisoned  by  it.  It  has  been  conclusively  proved,  how- 
ever, that  it  is  soon  rendered  insoluble  and  harmless  by  combining 
with  other  elements  found  in  the  soil.  Its  long-continued  use  through- 
out the  western  United  States,  withotit  a  single  evil  result  being  re- 
corded, is  a  sufficient  answer  from  experience  to  any  fears  that  may 
be  entertained.  It  is  of  course  necessary  that  great  care  be  exercised 
in  handling  Paris  green,  as  many  accidents  have  resulted  from  care- 
lessness in  leaving  it  where  it  might  be  gotten  at  by  children  and  ani- 
mals. A  preparation  of  Paris  green,  to  be  used  as  an  exterminator, 
is  prepared  and  sold. 

PARSLEY. — Parseley  is  a  herb  cultivated  in  gardens,  and 
used  largely  for  ornamenting  meats  and  flavoring  stews,  soups  and 
various  dishes  in  the  domestic  economy.  It  is  very  nutritious  and 
stimulating.  The  bruised  leaves  are  sometimes  used  for  poultices. 
It  comes  into  use  during  the  fall,  winter  and  spring. 

PARSXIP. — This  plant  is  universally  cultivated  for  its  root, 
which  is  boiled  and  eaten  with  various  boiled  meats.  It  is  excellent 
food  for  cattle  in  the  winter.  The  best  varieties  are  rich  and  mar- 
row-like. A  number  of  varieties  are  in  cultivation,  but  they  closely 
resemble  each  other,  and  their  peculiarities  are  doubtless  determined 
by  the  soil  on  which  they  are  raised. 

PASTES. — Pastes  are  forms  of  prepared  flour  similar  to  Maca- 
roni, Vermicelli,  etc.,  but  not  of  the  same  character.  They  are 
made  in  many  pretty  forms,  such  as  letters,  animals,  stars  and  fancy 
shapes,  and  are  generally  used  in  soupes.  In  confectionery  pastes 
are  stiff-forms  of  candy — such  as  jujube  paste,  fig  paste,  etc.  Fish 
pastes  are  prepared  from  anchovies,  bloaters,  etc.  Furniture  paste 
or  cream  is  a  compound  of  beeswax  and  turpentine. 

PEA. — The  Pea  is  one  of  our  most  valuable  table  vegetables, 
its  nutritious  character  making  it  very  desirable.  When  purchased 
in  the  pod  they  should  be  kept  in  a  dry,  cool  place,  and  never  allowed 
to  get  damp  or  warm.  They  are  very  extensively  canned,  both  ia 
this  country  and  in  France,  and  very  much  in  quality,  many  of  the 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  107 

cheaper  packings  being  dry  peas  soaked  in  water  and  canned,  a  prac- 
tice often  resorted  to  when  the  market  has  advanced  to  tempting 
figures,  They  are  eaten  both  in  the  green  and  dry  state.  The  can- 
ning of  green  peas  has  become  quite  a  large  industry,  and  is  always 
found  on  grocers'  shelves.  The  native  country  of  the  pea  is  un- 
known. The  common  garden  pea  are  of  two  kinds,  the  round, 
smooth  pea,  and  the  wrinkled  or  marrow-pea,  which  is  much  larger 
than  the  round  pea.  Probably  no  other  vegetable  differs  more  in 
quality  than  this,  owing  to  variety,  degree  of  matutity,  and  length 
of  time  since  gathering.  The  wrinkled  varieties  are  much  sweeter 
and  better  flavored  than  the  round,  but  on  account  of  the  great  earli- 
ness  of  the  round  sort,  the  first  peas  of  the  season  are  always  of  that 
kind.  An  experienced  person  can  always  tell  by  the  feel  of  the  pods 
when  they  are  in  condition  to  pick  for  the  table  ;  if  too  young  the 
seeds  are  very  small  in  proportion  to  the  pod,  while  if  too  aged  there 
is  a  want  of  firmness  and  flavor. 

PEACHES. — The  peach  is  cultivated  to  a  very  great  extent  in 
New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland  and  the  South,  the  principal  mar- 
kets being  Philadelphia,  Boston,  Baltimore  and  New  York.  They 
are  sold  in  baskets,  which  vary  very  materially,  there  being  no  regu- 
lation size,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  for  the  buyer  to  exercise  care 
in  the  selection  in  order  to  get  full  value.  The  main  distinctions  in 
peaches  are  the  yellow  and  white  varieties,  and  those  with  clingstones 
and  freestones.  Canned  peaches  vary  in  size  and  quality  ;  they  are 
divided  into  two  distinct  grades — table  peaches  and  pie  peaches. 
Peaches  are  also  evaporated  and  sold  by  weight,  but  as  they  lose  some 
of  the  flavor  in  the  process,  they  are  not  very  popular.  Peaches  are 
imported  from  Bermuda  at  the  end  of  April,  when  they  realize  fancy 
prices,  and  come  from  the  South  during  June,  and  from  New  Jersey 
about  July  20th.  The  season  is  at  its  height  in  the  middle  of  August, 
and  ends  in  September. 

Peach  trees  and  fruit  are  subject  to  a  very  serious  disease  known 
as  the  yellows,  which,  in  many  sections  of  the  country,  threatens  to 
entirely  prevent  the  growing  of  the  fruit.  The  disease  also  renders 
unfit  for  use  many  of  the  peaches  which  are  now  sold  in  our  markets. 
The  symptoms  of  this  disease  are  in  the  tree,  a  production  of  numer- 
ous wire-like  shoots  from  the  sides  of  the  limbs,  and  a  yellow  color 
of  the  leaves  ;  in  the  fruit,  first,  premature  ripening,  the  fruit  being; 
ripe  from  two  to  four  weeks  before  its  proper  time  ;  second,  the  pres- 
ence of  patches  and  spots  of  a  deep  purple  color  upon  the  peach,  no- 
matter  what  its  proper  tint ;  third,  a  deeper  color,  watery  condition, 
and  insipid  taste  of  the  flesh.  The  cause  of  the  disease  is  not  well 
understood.  Many  have  been  led  to  believe  that  it  was  caused  by  an 
attack  of  fungoid  parasites,  whilst  others  have  supposed  that  it  was 
due  to  overbearing  and  poor  cultivation  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that 
trees  which  have  become  weakened  by  such  means,  are  more  liable  to 


108  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

the  attacks  of  the  disease  than  strong  and  vigorous  ones.  It  is  also 
-a  question  of  dispute  whether  the  disease  is  contagious  or  not,  although 
it  is  well  known  that  if  the  disease  makes  its  appearance  in  an  or- 
chard, the  whole  will  soon  be  destroyed  unless  the  diseased  trees  be 
at  once  removed.  The  yellows  are  known  only  in  the  northern  Uni- 
ted States — the  southern  United  States  and  Europe  having  never  been 
troubled  by  the  disease.  No  effective  remedy  is  known. 

PEACH  BRANDY — Is  made  in  considerable  quantities  by  distilling 
ripe  peaches.  Its  consumption  is  rapidly  diminishing. 

PEACH  WATER — Obtained  by  bruising  the  leaves  into  a  pulp 
with  water,  and  distilling ;  is  used  for  flavoring,  and  in  medicine  as  a 
sedative  and  worm-remedy. 

PEANUTS.— The  tree  is  a  native  of  South  America.  It  is 
cultivated  in  the  southern  United  States,  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa. 
Peanuts  furnish  a  very  important  article  of  food  among  many  of  the 
negro  tribes  of  Africa,  and  they  are  also  grown  in  large  quantities  in 
that  country  for  the  manufacture  of  an  essential  oil,  which  ia  largely 
used  in  the  adulteration  of  olive-oil ;  and,  in  very  many  instances,  it  is 
sold  as  genuine  olive-oil,  without  the  admixture  of  an  ounce  of  the 
real  article.  An  average  crop  of  peanuts  is  fifty  or  sixty  bushels  to 
the  acre.  Hand-shelled  nuts  are  largely  used  for  eating,  and  by  con- 
fectioners, both  in  Europe  and  in  this  country  ;  but  those  which  are 
machine-shelled  are  only  fit  for  oil-crushing  and  cattle-feeding  pur- 
poses. The  oil-cake  of  the  nuts,  when  pure,  is  highly  esteemed  for 
its  fattening  properties — horses,  cattle,  pigs  and  poultry  being  very 
fond  of  the  peanut  in  its  natural  state.  A  heaped  imperial  bushel  of 
the  nuts  weighs  from  twenty- five  to  thirty-two  pounds.  Divested 
•of  their  shell,  the  kernels  furnish  as  much  as  forty-five  to  fifty  per 
cent,  of  oil.  Besides  the  great  value  of  its  seeds  for  oil,  this  plant  is 
also  a  good  fodder  herb,  since  it  is  very  productive  and  yields  a  quick 
return.  The  yield  on  light  soils  is  fifty  bushels  per  acre ;  in  some 
other  parts  of  the  United  States,  it  is  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty  bushels  an  acre.  Previous  to  1860,  the  product  in  this  coun- 
try did  not  exceed  150,000  bushels  ;  at  the  present  time,  the  supply 
for  home  consumption  amounts  to  1,500,000  bushels  annually.  The 
wasted  seeds  are  sometimes  used  as  a  substitute  for  chocolate,  since 
they  abound  in  starch  as  well  as  oil,  and  a  large  proportion  of  albu- 
minous matter.  In  Brazil  the  seeds  are  parched  for  food,  and  econ- 
omists urge  the  more  extended  use  of  pvanut  meal  as  a  food,  claiming 
that  the  residue  from  the  peanut,  even  after  the  oil  has  been  expressed, 
far  exceeds  the  ordinary  green  pea  or  the  lentil  in  its  possession  of 
flesh-forming  elements,  its  general  nutrition,  and  the  fat  and  phos- 
phoric acid  they  contain.  Although  in  the  raw  state  it  has  a  some- 
what harsh  odor,  this  flavor  entirely  passes  off  in  cooking.  The  pea- 
nut is  held  in  high  estimation  throughout  the  United  States,  by  youth 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  109> 

and  adults,  whether  roasted,  raw  or  imbedded  in  candy,  as  the  flour- 
ishing sale  stands  at  almost  every  street  corner  will  testify.  Virginia, 
Tennessee  and  North  Carolina,  are  the  great  peanut-producing  States. 
Of  late  peanut  flour  has  been  quite  extensively  manufactured. 

PEANUT  OIL. — This  oil  is  largely  used  for  domestic  and  culinary 
purposes  ;  for  mixture  with  olive-oil,  and  for  cloth-dressing,  though 
its  chief  use  in  Europe  is  for  the  manufacture  of  soap  and  for  lubri- 
cating machinery.  As  a  lamp  oil  it  burns  longer  than  olive-oil, 
though  its  illuminating  power  is  less.  A  bushel  of  peanuts  will 
yield  a  gallon  when  expressed  cold ;  while,  if  heat  is  employed,  a 
larger  quantity  will  be  obtained,  though  its  quality  will  be  consider- 
ably inferior.  Peanut  oil  has  the  advantage  over  other  vegetable  oils 
of  being  able  to  be  kept  for  a  much  longer  time  without  becoming; 
rancid.  In  Brazil  the  oil  is  used  for  cooking,  medicinally  for  rheu- 
matic affections,  and  for  lighting. 

PECAN  NUTS. — A  kind  of  Hickory  nut,  generally  grown  in 
the  western  and  southern  parts  of  the  United  States.  They  are 
agreeable  in  flavor,  and  arrive  about  December.  The  nuts  are  of 
oblong  shape,  and  have  a  smooth,  thin  shell,  and  easily  separated 
kernel.  They  are  seasonable  until  April. 

PEARS. — Few  fruits  have  been  as  carefully  cultivated  and  im- 
proved as  the  Pear.  It  appears  in  countless  varieties  in  our  markets, 
varying  in  size  from  the  little  brown  Seckel  pear  to  the  large  Bartlett. 
The  different  varieties  ripen  at  various  seasons,  and  the  consumption 
of  the  fruit  extends  over  much  the  same  time  as  that  of  the  apple. 
Very  fine  pears  are  now  shipped  in  crates  from  California,  and  find 
ready  sale  in  our  eastern  cities.  Canned  pears  are  a  staple  article  ia 
every  retail  grocer's  stock. 

PEPPER. — The  common  kinds  of  Pepper,  black  and  white, 
are  in  reality  one  and  the  same,  the  only  difference  being  in  the  prepa- 
ration which  it  undergoes.  Black  pepper  is  simply  the  dried  fruit  of 
the  tree,  and  though  not  so  agreeable  to  the  eye  as  white,  possesses- 
more  of  the  essential  flavor  of  the  spice.  White  pepper  is  prepared 
by  putting  the  pods  in  water  and  removing  the  black  or  outer  cover- 
ing ;  sometimes  it  is  bleached  afterward,  to  make  its  appearance  bet- 
ter, consequently  the  degrees  in  quality  are  very  numerous.  Long 
pepper  is  an  entirely  distinct  species,  being  used  for  pickling.  It  is 
more  pnngent  than  either  black  or  white  pepper.  Jamaica  pepper 
or  Pimento,  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  allspice,  and  is  larger  than 
black  pepper.  Cayenne  pepper,  sometimes  termed  u  Chillies,"  is  the 
powder  of  what  is  commonly  called  Cayenne  pods,  produced  by  grind- 
ing ;  when  pure  is  the  most  pungent  of  all.  It  enters  largely  into 
the  composition  of  botanical  medicines.  Pepper  is  used  as  a  condi- 
ment, aud  is  a  warm,  carminative  stimulant ;  it  strengthens  the  stom- 


110  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

ach  and  assists  digestion.  In  the  tropics  the  inhabitants  use  it  with 
«11  their  food,  drink  it  in  decoction,  and  make  fermented  liquors  from 
it.  The  ground  pepper  of  our  stores  is  largely  adulterated  with  mus- 
tard, ground  rice,  wheat,  etc.  Pepper  dust,  the  refuse  and  sweep- 
ings of  warerooms,  is  used  to  mix  with  the  ground  article.  The 
annual  consumption  of  pepper  in  the  United  States  is  not  less  than 
$1,100,000  in  value. 

PEPPERMINT. — Peppermint  is  an  essential  oil  distilled  from 
the  mint  plant.  New  York  and  Michigan  produce  over  two-thirds 
of  the  peppermint  oil  of  the  United  States.  It  is  used  for  flavoring 
and  in  medicine. 

PERFUMED  LYE — Is  a  superior  description  of  lye  or  alka- 
line manufacture,  in  a  fine  powder,  perfumed  so  that  it  makes  scented 
soap.  It  is  covered  by  a  patent,  and  is  now  manufactured  by  the 
Pennsylvania  Salt  Company. 

PICKLES. — This  term,  as  known  to  the  trade,  refers  to  all 
the  numerous  kinds  of  vegetables  preserved  in  vinegar  and  flavored 
•with  various  spices — such  as  Mixed  Pickles,  Gherkins,  Cauliflowers, 
Onions,  Cabbage,  Cucumbers,  Green  Beans,  Mushrooms,  Capers, 
Olives,  Melons,  Pears,  Limes,  Peaches,  Unripe  Nuts,  Indian  Pickles, 
Piccalilli,  Chow-chow,  etc.  Large  quantities  of  pickles  are  imported, 
but  most  of  our  supplies  are  obtained  from  this  country.  Chow-chow 
and  Piccalilli  are  prepared  by  the  mixture  of  a  quantity  of  the  flour 
of  mustard  with  the  vinegar.  They  are  generally  prepared  by  being 
allowed  to  steep  some  time  in  salt  water,  and  then  parboiled  and 
transferred  into  vinegar,  along  with  salt  and  various  spices,  such  as 
ginger,  pepper,  allspice,  mustard,  pepper-pods,  etc.  East  India 
pickles  are  flavored  with  curry  powder,  mixed  with  garlic  and  mus- 
tard. The  vinegar  is  sometimes  put  on  the  article  in  a  cold  state,  or 
it  may  be  boiling.  Immense  quantities  of  pickles  are  used,  especially 
on  ship-board,  and  they  form  an  almost  necessary  article  of  diet.  In 
order  to  render  them  more  attractive,  they  are  often  colored  by  the 
addition  of  sulphate  of  copper,  or  by  boiling  the  vinegar  in  copper 
vessels.  Most  of  the  vinegar  used  in  pickling  contains  sulphuric  acid, 
and  this,  acting  on  the  copper  of  the  kettle,  forms  a  sulphate  of  cop- 
uer,  a  deadly  poison.  Pickles  are  now  put  up  colored  and  uncolored, 
so  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  using  the  colored  article.  One  of  the 
noticeable  differences  of  flavor  between  American  and  English  pickles 
is  caused  by  the  general  use  of  malt  vinegar  in  Great  Britain.  The 
greening  of  pickles  is  a  very  delicate  operation,  and  novices  at  the 
business  turn  out  a  very  dark,  unsightly  article.  The  admixture  of 
mustard  makes  them  look  muddy,  except  when  very  expertly  done. 

To  TEST  PICKLES. — The  use  of  copper  to  brighten  pickles  is 
Siighly  injurious  to  health,  and  its  presence  can  easily  be  detected  by 


THE    GROCEFCS    COMPANION.  Ill 

putting  a  steel  knitting  or  packing  needle  into  a  jar  of  pickles,  when, 
if  mucb  copper  is  present,  the  needle  will  soon  become  coated  with  it. 
If  diluted  ammonia  is  put  into  a  bottle  containing  a  doubtful  pickle, 
the  slightest  trace  of  copper  will  cause  the  ammonia  water  to  turn 
blue. 

PIPES. — This  necessary  article  to  smokers  is  manufactured  iu 
this  country  as  well  as  imported,  and  present  an  almost  endless  va- 
riety. The  common  clay  article  is  necessarily  the  first,  from  its 
cheapness  and  general  use.  The  next  in  order  are  those  manufac- 
tured irom  briar-root,  cherry  and  other  woods,  and  the  last  and  most 
expensive,  are  those  made  from  meerschaum,  a  peculiar  mineral  de- 
posited in  the  soil  in  various  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

By  far  the  choicest  and  finest  clay  pipes  come  from  France. 
They  readily  absorb  the  oil  of  the  tobacco,  and  color  quickly — a  val- 
uable quality  in  the  eyes  of  tobacco-smokers.  The  T.  D.  pipes  come 
from  Glasgow,  Scotland,  are  sold  wholesale  at  from  a  half  cent  to  one 
cent  a-piece,  and  retail  from  one  to  two  cents.  There  are  several 
clay-pipe  factories  in  Philadelphia,  Baltimore  and  Canada.  The  red 
clay  pipes  are  chiefly  made  in  Providence,  Rhode  Island.  The  JFooeZ- 
stock  clay  pipe  is  a  great  favorite,  especially  in  the  rural  districts. 
Americans  object  to  the  use  of  porcelain  pipe  bowls,  so  popular  in 
Holland  and  Germany,  from  the  fact  that  they  are  not  porous,  and 
become  unpleasantly  hot  in  smoking. 

PINT. — A  measure  holding  one-eighth  of  a  gallon.  [See 
Weights  and  Measures. J 

PLACARDS. — A  very  striking  method  of  advertising,  which, 
if  judiciously  carried  out,  will  result  in  a  good  return  for  money  in- 
vested. Grocers  need  not  make  their  own  placards,  as  neat  and  tasty 
placards,  excellently  designed,  can  be  had  at  very  low  prices  from 
show-card  printers  and  artists.  Do  not  disfigure  your  store  with 
clumsy-looking  placards  ;  have  good  ones  or  none. 

PLUMS. — Among  the  best  varieties  of  the  cultivated  plums  to 
be  found  in  the  United  States,  are  the  Washington,  Duane's  Purple, 
Green  Gage,  Yellow  Egg,  Huliug's  Superb.  Bleecker's  Gage,  JeiTer- 
son,  McLaughlin,  Prince,  Chickasaw,  Beach  and  Blackthorn.  The 
American  wild  plum  grows  wild  in  thickets,  along  fence  rows  and 
banks  of  streams,  from  Canada  to  Texas.  The  fruit,  in  its  wild 
state,  is  red,  rather  small  and  unpleasant  flavor,  but  has  been  much 
improved  both  in  flavor  and  condition  by  cultivation,  and  although 
of  a  pleasant  flavor  when  fully  ripe,  is  not  adapted  for  cooking  pur- 
poses. The  garden  plums,  when  ripe,  are  among  the  most  delicious 
of  our  fruits.  Green  Gages  ripen  about  August  15th,  and  last  till 
October.  Some  other  varieties  ripen  earlier.  French  plums  are  im- 
ported largely  from  Europe,  and  are  known  by  various  brands.  They 


112  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

are  prepared  for  the  market  as  soon  as  gathered,  by  being  dried  by 
the  action  of  the  sun's  rays  until  they  become  quite  soft.  They  are 
then  collected  and  put  in  a  heated  oven,  and  further  dried.  "When 
sufficiently  dried,  they  are  made  round  by  the  stone  being  turnod 
round  and  the  fruit  pressed  at  the  ends,  and  are  then  packed  in  the 
desired  form  for  the  market.  Prunes  are  prepared  in  a  similar  man- 
ner, but  not  with  such  care,  and  form  a  lower  grade  of  fruit.  [See 
Prunes.  J 

PLUM  PUDDING.— This  popular  and  world-famed  dish  has 
now  become  more  popular  than  ever  in  its  comparatively  novel  form 
— that  of  an  article  in  canned  goods.  It  is  the  most  convenient  and 
toothsome  dessert  dish  that  the  grocer  can  offer  to  puzzled  house- 
keepers. Large  quantities  of  our  American  Plum  Puddings,  in  this 
form,  are  actually  sent  to  England,  thus  supplying  John  Bull  with 
his  national  luxury  in  a  vastly  improved  shape.  They  come  in  one 
pound,  two  pound,  three  pound  and  four  pound  cans. 

POLARISCOPE. — This  is  an  instrument  to  determine  the 
amount  of  saccharine  matter  in  sugars  ;  or,  in  other  words,  to  ascer- 
tain the  amount  of  adulteration  in  the  samples  presented,  by  testing 
the  variations  with  which  they  polarize  light.  It  may  be  considered 
the  best  way  of  obtaining  the  comparative  value  of  raw  sugars,  and 
was  for  a  considerable  time  in  use  at  the  New  York  Custom  House, 
but  was  resisted  by  the  sugar  importers  of  that  city  as  illegal,  and 
subsequently  withdrawn.  There  is  no  doubt,  however,  if  Congress 
were  to  enact  a  law  adopting  the  polariscope  as  a  test,  that  it  would 
furnish  the  most  reliable  method  of  determining  the  intrinsic  value 
of  sugar. 

POLENTA — Forms  the  chief  food  of  many  Italian  peasants, 
and  is  a  flour  ground  from  chestnuts.  It  is  highly  nutritious,  and  is 
cooked  in  the  same  manner  as  our  American  corn-meal  cakes  or 
pone. 

POLLOCK. — An  Atlantic  fish,  very  plentiful,  and  usually 
salted  and  sold  as  cod-fish,  to  which  family  they  belong.  They  are 
inferior  to  the  genuine  cod. 

PORTER. — A  description  of  malt  liquor,  made  of  high-dried 
malt,  which  derives  its  dark  color  from  the  burnt  malt  or  burnt  sugar. 
It  is  said  to  be  fattening  in  its  qualities. 

POP-CORN. — Pop-corn  is  made  from  any  kind  of  corn  or 
maize,  especially  those  descriptions  of  grain  which  are  small  and 
compact,  and  which  are  used  for  popping.  The  corn,  which  has  been 
burnt  by  heat,  so  that  it  exhibits  the  inner  kernel,  is  sometimes  eaten 
with  salt  and  milk,  and  still  more  frequently  sugared  and  eaten  as  a 
confection.  The  articles  kno\vn  as  Snowdrift  and  Snowflake  are 


THE    GROCER'S  COMPANION.  113 

pimply  ground  Pop-corn,  and  come  in  half-pound  boxes,  and  are  eaten 
as  a  breakfast  or  supper  dish,  with  milk  and  sugar,  or  without 
sweetening. 

PORK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS.— The  importance  of  the 
trade  iu  Pork  and  Lard  is  so  great  that  a  somewhat  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  this  essential  product  should  be  given,  witli  the  olh'cial  regu- 
lations enforced  in  the  curing,  packing  and  branding  of  the  article. 
The  great  pork-packing  points  in  this  country  are  the  cities  of 
Chicago  and  Cincinnati. 

After  the  animals  have  been  killed  and  cooled  off,  they  are  ready 
to  be  cut  up  ;  they  are  carried  from  the  cooling  room  to  the  cutting 
room,  each  hog  being  weighed  as  he  is  brought  up,  and  a  record  kept 
of  the  weight.  Having  been  rolled  on  the  block,  one  blow  from  an 
immense  cleaver  severs  the  head  from  the  body  ;  another  blow  severs 
the  saddle  or  hind  parts  containing  the  hams  ;  another  lays  it  open 
on  the  back  ;  another  one  for  each  leg.  The  leaf  lard  being  already 
loosened,  is  now  stripped  from  the  carcass.  The  remainder  of  the 
hog  i?  then  cut  up  into  the  various  kinds  of  meat  it  is  most  suited  for. 
the  whole  operation  taking  but  a  few  moments  of  time — two  good 
men  having  dressed  two  thousand  beasts  in  less  than  eight  hours. 
A  day's  work  is  ordinarily  from  eleven  hundred  to  twelve  hundred 
head. 

The  trimmings  and  the  fat  are  now  collected  and  placed  in  huge 
tanks,  where  it  is  to  be  rendered  into  lard.  When  the  tanks  are 
filled  they  are  closed,  and  the  entire  mass  is  subjected  to  a  jet  of  steam 
from  the  boilers,  of  a  pressure  of  fifteen  pounds  per  inch.  By  this 
process  every  particle  of  lard  is  set  free.  One  of  the  tanks  is  re- 
served for  making  white  grease,  in  which  the  paunches,  intestines,  etc. , 
and  the  refuse  from  the  slaughter  houses,  are  placed  and  subjected  to 
the  same  steaming  process.  Another  tank  is  used  for  trying  out  dead 
hogs,  which  have  been  killed  by  accident,  into  which  they  are  dumped 
whole.  The  product  of  this  i,s  known  as  yellow  grease.  After  the 
mass  in  the  several  lard  tanks  has  been  sufficiently  treated  by  the 
steam  process,  the  lard  is  drawn  off  by  means  of  faucets,  into  an  im- 
mense open  iron  tank,  called  a  clarifier,  where  all  the  refuse  matters 
which  rise  to  the  top  are  skimmed  off,  and  the  sediment  or  heavier 
matters  are  withdrawn.  The  remaining  lard  is  then  run  into  coolers 
and  thence  into  barrels,  where  it  is  weighed  and  branded  pure  lard. 
After  the  lard  has  been  drawn  from  the  tanks,  a  large  manhole  is 
opened  at  the  bottom,  and  the  whole  mass  is  drawn  out  in  large 
wooden  tanks  set  even  with  the  floor.  The  mass  is  again  subjected 
to  a  boiling  heat,  and  all  the  remaining  lard  is  set  free  and  runs  to 
the  surface.  The  water  is  then  drawn  off,  and  the  solid  matters  re- 
maining are  used  in  the  preparation  of  manure. 

The  curing  room  occupies  the  lower  floor.     The  first  process  is 


114  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

to  dress  all  the  meats,  except  the  shoulders,  with  a  solution  of  salt- 
petre, which  is  applied  with  a  swab  to  the  green  meat,  and  while  wet 
with  it,  is  covered  and  rubbed  with  salt,  and  then  packed  in  tiers  to 
cure.  In  three  weeks  it  is  all  handled  over  and  treated  to  a  second 
dressing  of  salt,  and  again  in  seven  days  more,  when  it  is  pronounced 
cured.  After  a  few  days  the  English  meats  (that  is,  the  meats  in- 
tended for  export) ,  are  carefully  scraped  and  smoothed  off,  prepara- 
tory to  packing.  These  meats  are  usually  packed  in  square  boxes 
containing  five  hundred  pounds.  The  barrel  meat  is  packed  in  the 
second  story.  Enough  pieces  of  the  various  kinds  are  weighed  out 
for  a  barrel;  it  should  be  two  hundred  pounds,  but  one  hundred  and 
ninety  or  one  hundred  and  ninety-six  pounds  is  generally  put  in,  as 
it  is  found  the  pork  increases  in  weight  by  the  absorption  of  brine. 
It  is  then  packed,  a  layer  of  meat,  then  salt,  until  filled  ;  the  whole 
are  then  headed  and  branded.  Each  barrel  is  then  filled  with  brine, 
and  allowed  to  stand  with  a  small  bung  open  a  short  time.  More 
brine  is  added,  if  necessary,  and  the  bung  closed.  Most  of  the  hams 
are  cured  and  smoked.  The  curing  process  varies  with  different 
houses,  some  applying  the  saltpetre  and  salt  and  packing  in  bulk  to 
cure,  while  others  prepare  a  pickle  (sweet  pickle)  by  the  use  of  three 
ounces  of  saltpetre  and  one  to  two  quarts  of  molasses  for  a  brine — the 
brine  being  made  to  show  30°  of  saltness  by  the  meter.  After  the 
meat  has  lain  a  sufficient  time  in  the  pickle,  it  is  taken  out  apd  packed 
in  bulk  for  curing,  or  hung  up  and  allowed  to  remain  for  several 
weeks  ;  after  this  the  hams  may  be  smoked  if  so  desired.  For  sum- 
mer shipment  the  hams  are  wrapped  in  paper  and  canvassed ;  the 
canvass  being  generally  covered  with  a  preparation  of  chrome  yellow  ; 
and  in  its  use  great  care  should  be  taken,  as  it  is  a  deadly  poison. 
Hams  shipped  to  England  are  seldom  smoked,  but  are  shipped  in 
pickle. 

The  various  terms  applied  to  Packed  Pork  may  be  thus  ex- 
plained : — 

CLEAR  PORK — Is  pork  obtained  from  the  sides  of  extra- heary, 
well-fatted  hogs,  the  backbone  and  half  the  rib-bone  being  taken  out. 

MESS  PORK — Is  made  of  the  sides  of  the  thickest  and  fattest 
hogs,  cut  into  strips  six  or  seven  inches  wide,  running  from  back  to 
belly. 

ORDINARY  MESS  PORK — Is  cut  in  the  same  manner,  but  from 
lighter  hogs,  ranging  from  one  hundred  and  seventy  to  two  hundred 
pounds. 

PRIME  MESS  PORK — Is  cut  from  a  still  lighter  class,  raaging 
from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  the  shoulder  being 
included.  It  is  generally  cut  into  four-pound  pieces,  so  that  fifty- 
should  make  a  barrel. 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION,  115 

In  the  cutting  of  meats  for  export,  the  following  system  is 
pursued : — 

SHORT  RIBBED  MIDDLES. — This  is  the  side  of  the  medium- 
weight  hog  (shoulder  and  ham  off) ,  the  bone  removed,  and  the  ribs 
cracked  through  the  middle. 

SHORT  CLEAR — Is  the  same  part  cut  from  the  best  hogs  with 
backbone  and  all  the  ribs  taken  out. 

LONG  CLEAR — Is  the  side,  including  the  shoulder,  with  all  the 
bones  removed. 

LONG  RIB — Is  the  same  as  above,  with  the  shoulder  and  back- 
bone out ;  ribs  left  in. 

CUMBERLANDS — Is  the  shoulder  and  side  together,  with  the 
backbone  out,  the  shank  cut  short. 

STRETFORDS — Sides  and  shoulders  together,  the  shoulder  and 
bone  taken  out,  shank  left  in  ;  backbone  and  upper  half  of  rib  re- 
moved. 

LONG  ENGLISH  HAMS — Is  the  whole  hipbone  being  left  in,  and 
the  ham  left  the  full  size. 

PICKLED  HAMS  AND  SHOULDERS. — The  number  of  pieces  and 
green  weight  meat  must  be  branded  9n  the  head  of  each  tierce. 

Long,  short,  clear  and  back,  are  packed  in  the  months  of  June, 
July,  August  and  September  by  some  houses,  two  hundred  pounds 
in  the  barrel,  and  will  not  gain  in  weight  unless  put  in  the  ice-house, 
and  then  goes  back  when  exposed  to  a  warm  temperature  ;  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  pounds,  packed  in  cool  weather,  when  thoroughly 
salted,  will  weigh  out  two  hundred  pounds,  and  often  overrun  from 
five  to  ten  pounds.  One  hundred  and  eighty  pounds  is  the  quantity 
of  fresh  pork  put  in  barrels  in  cool  weather  by  all  the  leading  pack- 
ers. It  is  known  that  some  pack  one  hundred  and  ninety  pounds  to 
the  barrel,  after  the  pork  has  been  salted  on  the  premises  of  the 
packer — hence  there  is  no  gain  and  the  retailer  is  the  loser.  It  is 
best  to  buy  of  the  principal  packers  whose  reputations  are  fixed. 

BACON — Made  from  the  shoulders  and  ribs,  and  known  as  rt/>, 
clear  rib,  having  the  backbone  sawed  out,  and  dear  being  free  from 
both  backbone  and  ribs. 

LARD  OIL — Is  made  by  placing  the  lard  in  heavy  duck  bagging, 
and  subjecting  it  to  heavy  pressure ;  the  residuum  stearine  being 
largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  candles. 

To  recapitulate  the  manufactured  products  we  have  from  the 
hog  ;  they  comprise — 

1. — No.   1   Lard;  2. — Common    Lard  or  grease;  3. — Inferior 


116  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

Grease  ;  4.— Lard  Oil ;  5.— Red  Oil ;  6.— Oleine  Oil ;   7.— Glycer- 
ine ;  8. — Stearine. 

PETROLEUM  OR  COAL  OIL.  — Petroleum  is  found  in 
many  parts  of  the  world,  and  is  believed  to  be  a  result  from  the  de- 
composition of  huge  masses  of  antediluvian  fish,  in  the  same  way 
that  coal  was  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  trees  and  plants,  or 
to  be  the  actual  distillation  from  coal  when  the  rocks  were  hot.  It 
is  found  in  great  abundance  in  Pennsylvania.  The  Indians  used  it 
as  a  liniment,  and  it  was  sold  as  Seneca  or  Rock  oil  for  many  years 
before  the  processes  for  refining  it  were  devised.  In  its  crude  state 
it  was  not  as  economical  as  many  of  the  vegetable  or  animal  oils.  In 
1855  the  perfection  of  refining  began  to  render  it  truly  valuable.  In 
the  process  of  refining  the  crude  oil,  various  products  are  secured, 
such  as  naptha,  benzine,  gasoline,  paraffine  oil  and  wax,  and  the 
refined  kerosene  or  illuminating  oil.  As  petroleum  is  highly  inflam- 
mable, laws  have  been  passed  in  different  States  which  restrict  its 
sale  for  illuminating  purposes  to  certain  degrees  of  lk  flash"  or  fire- 
test.  It  is  .safe  at  130°,  and  is  said  to  lose  some  of  its  qualities 
when  refined  to  a  higher  grade.  The  Standard  Oil  Company  has 
monopolized  the  oil  business  of  the  United  States  for  several  years, 
and  dictates  prices  and  terms  very  generally.  Dealers  should  look 
well  to  the  gauge  of  their  oil  barrels  and  destroy  the  inspector'* 
brands  on  all  the  empty  packages,  or  they  may  lose  in  the  gauge  and 
be  fined  by  the  government. 

To  TEST  COAL  OIL. — Put  a  small  quantity  of  the  oil  to  be  tested 
in  a  cup,  set  in  a  tin  of  water,  and  slowly  warm  the  water,  noticing 
the  degree  of  heat  in  the  oil  by  keeping  a  thermometer  immersed  in  it. 
When  the  temperature  rises,  pass  a  lighted  match  (an  electric  spark  U 
the  best)  quickly  over  its  surface,  at  intervals.  As  soon  as  the  gas 
or  vapor  given  off  by  the  heated  oil,  flashes  or  burns,  its  test  is  de- 
termined ;  that  is,  if  it  ignites  when  the  mercury  stands  at  120°,  it 
is  an  oil  of  120°  flash  test.  This  is  a  simple  and  reliable  method  of 
proving  the  quality  of  oil. 

PICKEREL. — The  common  Pike  or  Pickerel  is  a  fish  which 
abounds  in  all  the  rivers  and  lakes  of  the  northern  United  States,  and 
is  excellent  for  eating.  Large  numbers  are  taken  through  the  ice  iu 
winter,  by  means  of  a  hook,  and  sent  to  market  in  a  frozen  condi- 
tion. The  lake  Pickerel  is  also  salted  and  packed  in  barrels,  but  its 
flesh  is  not  very  good  in  this  condition. 

PORT  WINE. — Port  wine  is  a  wine  supposed  to  be  shipped 
from  Oporto  and  Lisbon,  Portugal ;  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  not 
more  than  one-eighth  of  the  wine  bearing  that  name  can  legitimately 
claim  Portugal  as  its  birth-place.  It  is  made  from  grapes.  Wheu 
perfectly  pure  the  wine  does  not  acquire  its  full  strength  and  flavor 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  117 

until  it  has  stood  for  years.  Its  value,  therefore,  increases  with  age. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  extensively  imitated  of  all  wines,  being  in  small 
eupply  and  of  sufficient  market  value  to  make  the  imitation  a  paying 
investment. 

POTASH. — Potash  is  the  solid  substance  or  ash  which  remains 
in  the  pot  in  which  is  evaporated  the  water  impregnated  with  wood 
ashes.  When  deprived  of  its  carbonic  acid,  it  is  known  as  caustic 
potash.  It  is  used  in  making  soap,  soap  powder,  and  all  washing 
preparations. 

POTATO. — The  potato  is  a  native  of  the  table-lands  of  Mexico, 
Peru  and  Chili,  where  it  is  yet  found  growing  in  its  wild  state.  Its 
culture  is  said  to  have  been  carried  from  Florida  to  Virginia  by  the 
Spanish  explorers,  and  from  Virginia  to  England  in  1565  by  Sir  John 
Hawkins  ;  it  was  cultivated  in  Ireland  in  1610,  where  it  furnishes 
three-fifths  to  four-fifths  of  the  entire  food  of  the  people.  In  the 
eighteenth  century  it  was  cultivated  in  the  New  England  States,  and 
is  now  in  univereal  cultivation  in  Europe  and  America,  and  is  the 
most  productive  of  our  food-bearing  plants  ;  the  same  area  of  ground 
producing  thirty  times  greater  weight  of  potatoes  than  of  wheat. 
They  should  be  placed  as  soon  as  gathered  in  a  cool,  dark  place. 
Potatoes,  besides  water,  consist  almost  wholly  of  starch,  with  a  small 
proportion  of  sugar.  As  a  sole  article  of  food  they  are  not  adaptable, 
and  are  eaten  in  connection  with  other  foods,  animal  and  vegetable. 
A  large  number  of  varieties  are  ia  cultivation,  and  new  ones  are  con- 
stantly being  added.  The  best  varieties  seem  to  deteriorate  by  long 
cultivation,  and  new  ones  must  take  their  place.  Among  the  best 
varieties  now  in  cultivation  are  the  Early  Rose,  Peach  Blossom, 
/Snowflake,  Extra  Early  Vermont,  and  Comptou's  Surprise.  The 
annual  production  of  potatoes  in  the  United  States  exceeds  185,000,000 
bushels.  Of  late  years  the  Colorado  beetle  has  done  serious  damage 
.to  the  crops,  but  its  ravages  are  now  stayed  by  artificial  means,  and 
no  great  alarm  is  now  manifested.  Potatoes  yield,  by  distillation,  a 
brandy,  known  as  potato  spirit,  and  largely  used  in  the  adulteration 
of  wine  brandy.  Potatoes  are  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  starch. 

PINK  APPLE. — A  tropical  fruit,  so  called  from  its  resemblance 
in  form  and  external  appearance  to  the  cones  of  some  species  of  pine. 
As  the  pineapple  has  become  naturalized  in  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa, 
its  American  origin  has  been  disputed,  but  there  is  little  doubt  that  it 
is  a  native  of  Brazil  and  perhaps  of  some  of  the  Antilles.  The  pine- 
apple in  cultivation  rarely  produces  seeds,  but  in  ripening  the  whole 
flower  cluster  undergoes  a  remarkable  change  ;  all  parts  become  enor- 
mously enlarged,  and  when  quite  ripe,  fleshy  and  very  succulent, 
•l>eing  pervaded  by  a  very  saccharine,  highly-flavored  juice.  Instead 


118  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

of  being  a  fruit  in  the  strict  botanical  sense  of  the  term,  it  is  an  ag- 
gregation of  accessory  parts,  of  which  the  fruit  proper,  the  ripened 
ovary,  forms  but  a  small  portion  ;  in  this  succulent  mass,  gorged  with 
juice  and  blended  together,  are  the  stem,  corollary  and  ovary ;  in- 
deed the  pineapple  is  analagous  in  structure  to  the  mulberry,  though 
that  ripens  its  seed.  The  first  pineapples  known  in  England  were 
sent  as  a  present  to  Cromwell ;  the  first  cultivated  in  that  country 
were  raised  about  1715,  though  they  were  grown  in  Holland  in  the 
previous  century.  Pineapples  are  taken  from  the  West  Indies  to 
England  in  considerable  quantities,  but  the  fruit  is  so  inferior  to  that 
raised  under  glass,  that  its  cultivation  for  the  market  is  successfully 
prosecuted.  Better  West  India  pineapples  are  sold  in  our  markets 
than  in  those  of  England,  as  we  are1  nearer  the  places  of  growth. 
The  importations  are  very  large,  the  receipts  in  New  York,  in  a  sin- 
gle year,  aggregating  5,000,000  pineapples.  The  larger  numbers 
come  from  Eleuthera,  San  Salvador  and  Harbor  Island.  The  busi- 
ness of  canning  pineapples  is  largely  pursued  at  Nassau,  New  Provi- 
dence, whence  many  are  also  exported  whole,  both  to  England  and 
the  United  States.  Aside  from  its  use  as.  a  dessert  fruit  in  its  whole 
state,  large  quantities  are  canned  in  Jamaica  and  other  localities  for 
exportation.  The  juice  is  used  in  considerable  quantities  in  flavoring 
ices  and  syrups  for  soda  water.  The  expressed  juice  is  put  into  bot- 
tles, heated  through  by  means  of  a  water  bath,  and  securely  corked 
•while  hot ;  if  stored  in  a  cool  place  it  will  preserve  its  flavor  perfectly 
for  a  year.  The  leaves  of  the  pineapple  contain  an  abundance  of 
strong  and  very  fine  fibres,  which  are  sometimes  woven  into  fabrics 
of  exceeding  delicacy  and  lightness. 

POULTRY. — To  select  good  dressed  poultry,  see  that  the  eye 
is  bright,  feet  soft,  moist  and  limber,  and  the  body  perfectly  free- 
from  bruises  or  stains.  Young  poultry  should  have  a  breastbone  no 
harder  at  the  lower  end  than  the  gristle  of  a  man's  ear  ;  and  after  it 
becomes  too  stiff  to  bend  at  all,  the  fowl  is  generally  tough  and  old. 

POULTRY  SEASONING.— This  is  a  preparation  of  spices 
and  herbs  already  mixed  for  use  in  stuffing  fowls.  It  meets  with- 
considerable  sale  during  the  fall  and  winter  holidays. 

PRESERVES. — A  term  rather  indiscriminately  applied  to  any 
kind  of  fruits,  preserved  by  any  means  and  for  any  use.  Fruits  used 
by  confectioners  are  preserved  by  boiling  the  fruit  with  from  one-half 
to  its  equal  quantity  of  sugar.  Preserves  made  of  the  juice  only,  by 
carefully  straining  it  from  the  solid  portions,  and  boiling  it  until  it 
becomes  thick  when  cool,  are  known  as  Jellies.  The  fruit  is  also 
boiled  ivhole,  in  sugar  or  syrup,  and  allowed  to  crystallize,  when  they 
are  sold  as  Crystallized  or  Candied  Fruits.  Very  good  qualities  of 
preserves  are  put  up  iii  five  and  ten  pounds  in  pails  for  the  trade,  and' 
retailed  by  the  pound.  Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  such  good* 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  119 

closely  covered,  for  one  fly  will  often  do  much  mischief,  and  spoil  a 
grocer's  reputation.  A  wooden  spoon  should  be  used  to  take  them 
out,  as  metals  are  apt  to  turn  their  bright  color  to  a  duller  hue. 

POTTED  MEATS. — Various  meats  rendered  highly  nutritious 
by  evaporation,  packed  in  convenient  jars  and  ready  for  table  use. 

PRUNES. — The  Prunes  of  commerce  are  the  dried  plums  of 
certain  cultivated  varieties,  and  are  obtained  from  France,  Spain, 
Austria,  Hungary,  Germany,  and  various  parts  of  Turkey.  The  best 
prunes  are  those  from  Bordeaux.  Various  modes  of  curing  are  re- 
sorted to.  The  fruits  are  not  gathered  until  the  dews  are  dried  off 
them  by  the  sun.  They  are  then  picked  by  hand  and  spread  in  shal- 
low baskets,  which  are  kept  in  a  cool  and  dry  place.  When  they 
become  soft  they  are  shut  up  close  in  spent  ovens  and  left  for  twenty- 
four  hours.  They  are  then  taken  out  and  replaced,  after  the  ovens 
have  been  slightly  reheated.  On  the  following  day  they  are  taken 
out  and  turned,  by  slightly  shaking  the  sieves  in  which  they  have  been 
laid.  The, ovens  are  heated  again,  and  they  are  put  in  a  third  time, 
and  after  remaining  twenty-four  hours  more,  they  are  taken  out  and 
allowed  to  get  quite  cold.  After  some  further  manipulation  they  are 
submitted  to  oven  heat  twice  more,  and  then  packed  into  jars  or  boxes 
for  sale.  This  treatment  is  only  accorded  to  the  finer  kind  of  prunes, 
though  some  of  them  are  still  further  treated  in  different  ways,  being 
given  a  dark  color  by  a  harmless  pigment,  and  kept  moist  for  pack- 
ing in  boxes  by  the  addition  of  a  coat  of  glycerine.  This  is  to  please 
the  eye  only,  for  it  adds  nothing  to  the  flavor  or  quality  of  the  fruit. 
The  drying  process  requires  considerable  skill,  the  aim  being  to  de- 
velop the  saccharine  properties  of  the  fruit,  without  changing  its  fla- 
vor or  deteriorating  its  fruit-like  quality,  so  that  they  may  be  ready 
at  any  time  for  use  on  the  table  or  in  the  sick  room  ;  for  prunes  are 
often  ordered  by  physicians  for  their  cooling  and  aperient  qualities, 
and  also  as  a  vehicle  in  which  to  take  unpalatable  medicines.  They 
are  also  used  in  cookery. 

French  Prunes  of  the  better  grades  are  put  up  in  tin  boxes  and 
glass  jars,  which  are  hermetically  sealed  and  labeled,  and  are  then 
ready  for  market.  If  the  seaspn  has  been  good,  the  quantity  of  large 
and  prime  fruit  is  considerable.  The  largest  fruit  and  highest  grade  or 
quality  of  French  prunes,  run  about  forty  to  the  pound.  From  this 
ihey  range  in  number,  according  to  grade,  to  one  hundred  and  thirty 
to  the  pound.  The  figures  fifty  to  fifty-five,  eighty  to  eighty-five,  etc,, 
found  in  our  price-lists,  refer  to  the  number  of  prunes  to  the  pound ; 
the  best  prunes  coming  from  the  cultivated  trees  grafted  from  the 
wild  plum  stock.  The  common  sorts  are  roughly  shaken  from  the 
trees,  and  as  carelessly  packed  in  casks.  They  have  to  be  stewed 
before  they  can  be  brought  into  the  market.  The  Servian,  Turkish 
and  Austrian  prunes  are  all  of  this  common  quality  ;  but  there  are 


120       -  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANIOX. 

some  good  samples  from  Hungary.  The  fresh  crop  arrives  in  De- 
i-ember. The  annual  value  of  the  prunes  and  plums  consumed  in 
the  United  States,  may  be  stated  in  round  numbers  as  $2,000,000. 

PRUNELLES — Are  a  peculiar  kind  of  Prunes,  with  the  stones  re- 
moved ;  but  they  are  not  so  popular  as  the  ordinary  article. 

PULVERIZE. — A  term  signifying  to  reduce  to  powder,  and 
referring  to  any  granular  article,  such  as  sugar,  cereals,  etc. 

PUMPKINS. — This  fruit  is  of  various  forms,  sizes  and  colors. 
The  flesh  of  the  riud  is  usually  yellow,  and  the  cavity  loosely  filled 
with  a  yellow,  stringy  pulp.  It  is  generally  raised  with  Indian  corn. 
Pumpkins  are  largely  offered  for  sale  in  all  our  markets,  and  are  used 
in  soups  and  making  of  pies — the  ki  Pumpkin  pie  "  of  New  England 
being  a  prominent  feature  in  American  domestic  history.  The  pump- 
kin is  of  great  value  as  food  for  cattle  ;  but  as  a  garden  vegetable  it  is 
inferior  to  the  squash,  which  may  be  said  to  have  taken  its  place. 
They  are  also  dried  ;  and  ground  pumpkin,  in  the  form  of  ki  flour  "  or 
44  meal,"  is  also  an  article  of  commerce. 

QUINCE. — The  Quince  is  very  closely  allied  to  the  peach.  It 
has  a  rich  yellow,  orange  color,  with  a  strong  odor ;  is  a  hard  fruit, 
seldom  eaten  raw,  but  when  stewed  with  sugar  is  very  agreeable,  and 
is  used  either  by  itself  or  to  flavor  apples.  It  is  also  used  for  making 
a  preserve,  erroneously  called  marmalade.  A  very  delicious  drink  is 
made  from  it  resembling  cider.  Gum  is  also  extracted  from  it.  It 
is  very  generally  cultivated  in  this  country.  Among  the  best  varieties 
are  the  Orange  and  Portugal.  Quinces  are  in  season  from  October 
to  December. 

QUINTAL. — A  weight,  varying  in  different  countries.  Gen- 
erally, and  in  the  United  States,  it  is  about  one  hundred  pounds. 

BABBITS. — These  animals  are  plentiful  in  this  country,  both 
in  the  wild  and  domestic  state.  They  are  tender  when  under  one 
year  old.  Their  age  can  be  easily  ascertained  by  their  paws  and  ears, 
which  should  be  very  soft  if  they  are  young.  Domestic  rabbits  should 
not  be  eaten,  unless  they  have  had  a  wide  range,  free  from  manure  or 
heaps  of  refuse,  and  plenty  of  opportunity  to  burrow  in  dry  soil. 

RACAHOUT  DBS  AR  ABES. —An  Arabian  substitute  for 
chocolate  ;  a  preparation  of  roasted  acorns,  ground  and  mixed  with 
sugar  and  aromatic  spices. 

RADISH. — A  plant  of  the  mustard  family,  cultivated  chiefly 
for  its  root,  which  is  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  globular,  and 
varies  in  size  from  a  chestnut  to  a  turnip.  They  may  be  white, 
red  or  black  in  color.  They  are  raised  in  immense  quantities,  and 
used  as  a  table  relish,  but  do  not  contain  much  nutriment,  and  are 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  121 

rather  indigestible.  Early  radishes  are  largely  raised  in  the  Southern 
markets,  aud  shipped  to  the  North,  where  they  bring  good  prices  and 
liiid  a  ready  sale.  Among  the  best  varieties  for  summer  cultivation, 
are  the  Long  Scarlet,  Short  Top,  Scarlet  Turnip,  Scarlet  Olive- 
shaped  and  White  Turnip  and  Long  White.  For  fall  and  winter 
use,  we  have  the  Yellow  and  Gray  Turnip  Rooted,  Rose-Colored 
Chinese  and  Black  Spanish.  The  season  begins  in  April. 

RAISINS. — Raisins  are  made  from  grapes,  and  prepared  in 
two  ways  by  drying.  One  method  is  to  partly  cut  through  the  stalks 
and  allow  them  to  dry  on  the  vine  in  the  sun.  These  are  by  far  the 
best  sort,  and  all  Muscatels  or  Malaga  raisins  are  so  treated.  The 
other  mode  consists  of  drying  them  after  they  are  taken  from  the 
vine,  either  in  the  sun  or  in  ovens,  and  sometimes  dipping  them  in  a 
solution  of  alkali  made  out  of  wood  ashes  and  water.  After  this 
dipping,  the  fruit  is  laid  on  benches  to  drain  and  exposed  to  the  sun 
for  two  weeks,  when  they  are  removed  from  the  stalks  and  packed 
for  export.  There  are  really  four  different  kinds  in  the  market, 
varying  widely  in  quality.  Muscatels  are  a  large,  black  fruit,  and 
when  of  fine  quality  possess  a  rich  purple  bloom.  Vcdencias,  another 
Spanish  variety,  are  best  when  of  a  dry,  bright  yellow  appearance, 
and  free  from  all  but  the  very  small  stalk.  Sultanas  or  seedless 
raisins  come  from  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  are  finest  when  of  a  pale 
yellow,  transparent  color.  Smyrna  raisins  are  similar  in  appear- 
ance to  Valencias,  but  are  considered  the  lowest  class  on  the  markets, 
the  fruit  being  usually  very  stalky  and  small.  A  very  agreeable  wine 
is  made  from  raisins.  They  are  packed  in  casks,  frails  and  boxes. 
The  whole  box  should  contain  a  specified  number  of  pounds,  and  the 
half  and  quarter  boxes  should  be  proportionate  parts  of  the  same  ; 
but  as  gross  deception  in  weight  had  crept  into  the  trade,  a  general 
protest  was  made  against  tho  abuse,  and  in  some  degree  it  has  beeu 
rectified.  Dealers  should  insist  on  having  full  net  weights.  The 
value  of  the  raisins  consumed  annually  in  the  United  States  averages 
$2,600,000.  The  European  grape  succeeds  perfectly  in  California, 
and  the  production  there  increases  each  year. 

RAPE  SEED — Also  known  as  Kale  seed,  when  handled  by 
grocers,  is  used  as  food  for  cage-birds.  It  is  largely  cultivated  for 
the  manufacture  of  oil  for  lubricating  machinery,  known  as  Rape  oil; 
the  residue,  after  the  oil  is  expressed,  is  pressed  into  a  very  close- 
mass,  called  Rape  cake,  which  is  used  to  feed  cattle,  for  which  also 
even  the  stalks  are  utilized. 

RASPBERRIES.— This  delicious  fruit  grows  wild,  but  the 
cultivated  species  are  generally  sold  in  our  markets.  The  fruit  is 
used  a?  a  dessert,  usually  accompanied  by  red  and  white  currants. 
It  is  also  made  into  jams,  jellies,  and  for  making  various  descriptions 


122  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

of  flavoring  extracts  ;  and  is  furthermore  mixed  with  brandy,  wine 
or  vinegar,  for  the  pi*eparation  of  Raspberry  Syrup,  Raspberry  Vin- 
egar, etc.  Raspberries  fermented,  either  alone  or  with  cherries  or 
currants,  make  a  very  agreeable  wine.  Blackberries  are  of  the  same 
species  as  raspberries.  They  are  seasonable  from  June  loth  to  August 
15th.  The  delicate  flavor  of  these  berries  is  entirely  lost  after  they 
have  been  kept  a  few  days.  They  are  much  used,  with  currants,  for 
cooking  in  pies  and  puddings. 

RASPBERRY  VINEGAR. — This  is  a  preparation  made  from  Rasp- 
berry juice,  vinegar  and  sugar.  It  is  best  made  by  putting  carefully 
gathered,  very  ripe  raspberries  into  jars,  and,  when  full  of  fruit,  fill 
up  the  space  with  vinegar  ;  let  it  stand  for  eight  or  ten  days,  and  pour 
the  liquid  off  carefully.  This  process  is  sometimes  repeated  three 
times.  The  liquid  is  then  gently  boiled  for  five  minutes  with  its  own 
weight  of  refined  sugar,  and  then  tightly  corked  in  bottles.  Added 
to  water  it  makes  a  refreshing  summer  drink. 

BATS. — A  most  destructive  pest,  and  one  which  should  be  vig- 
orously exterminated.  If  a  grocer  finds  his  store  overrun  Avith  these 
vermin,  he  should  get  rid  of  them  at  once,  their  destructiveness  to 
property  being  astounding.  A  good  cat  is  the  best  remedy.  If 
poisons  are  used,  and  any  of  them  die  about  the  premises,  chloride 
of  lime  or  other  disinfectants  will  neutralize  the  odor. 

REAM. — A  quantity  of  paper  which  should  contain  four  hun- 
dred and  eighty  sheets  of  any  size,  but  seldom  running  full  count, 
especially  in  grocers'  straw  wrappers,  which  average  less  than  four 
hundred  and  fifty  sheets  to  the  ream.  Count  your  paper  and  get 
what  you  pay  for,  but  bear  in  miud  that  if  a  ream  containing  four 
hundred  and  fifty  sheets  is  really  worth  forty-five  cents,  it  will  be  ne- 
cessary to  pay  forty-eight  cents  for  full  count. 

RENNET. — Rennet  is  prepared  from  the  stomach  of  a  young 
calf,  by  soaking  it  in  water  for  several  weeks,  or  if  need  be  a  whole 
year.  It  is  used  to  coagulate  milk,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
cheese.  It  should  be  prepared  with  great  care  and  delicacy,  and  is 
sold  generally  to  a  select  class  of  customers.  It  comes  in  small  bot- 
tles, about  the  size  ordinarily  used  for  extracts. 

REVALENTA  ARABICA.— The  Farina  made  from  the  in- 
terior of  the  Lentil,  which  is  used  as  food  for  infants  and  invalids. 

RHUBARB  OR  PIE-PLANT.— A  plant  of  the  Buckwheat 

family,  very  valuable  for  its  properties,  and  as  cultivated  iu  the  gar- 
dens, furnishes  many  varied  dishes  for  the  household — its  fleshy, 
acid  stalks  being  used  in  early  spring  as  a  healthy  substitute  for  fruit 
in  making  pies  and  puddings.  The  principal  varieties  are  the  Lin- 
naeus, Victoria  and  Cahoon — from  the  last-named  variety  a  popular 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  123 

household  wine  is  made.  It  is  largely  cultivated  in  all  our  chief 
cities,  and  is  to  be  found  in  every  market  garden.  The  thick  end 
of  the  leaf-stalks  alone  are  used,  the  leaves  being  unwholesome.  If 
these  stalks  are  dried  in  the  sun,  they  may  be  kept  for  a  very  long 
time ;  and,  if  soaked  in  water  over  night,  will  be  found  almost  as 
good  as  when  freshly  gathered.  It  is  in  season  from  April  to  Sep- 
tember. 

RHUBARB  ROOT  OR  MEDICINAL  RHUBARB — Is  quite  a  different 
species  from  the  above,  which  grows  principally  in  Turkey  and 
China  or  Chinese  Tartary,  and  is  sold  by  chemists  and  druggists 
every  where,  as  it  is  universally  used  as  a  medicine  iu  the  pulverized 
form,  and  also  in  the  form  of  a  tincture. 

RICE. — Rice  is  the  seed  or  grain  of  a  description  of  grass,  and 
is  commonly  grown  in  all  tropical  and  semi-tropical  countries.  Ifc 
has  been  cultivated  from  the  remotest  antiquity,  and  was  iirst  intro- 
duced into  this  country  from  Madagascar,  in  1G94,  by  the  captain  of 
a  vessel,  who  presented  a  bag  of  paddy  to  one  of  the  merchants 
of  Charleston,  arid  from  this  seed  originated  a  crop  which  now 
amounts,  in  the  United  States  alone,  to  many  millions  of  dollars  an- 
nually. It  is  of  the  lirst  importance  as  a  food-product,  nearly  three- 
fourths  of  all  the  human  race  subsisting  on  this  grain  ;  so  that  in  fact* 
it  is  equal  in  value,  as  a  food-product,  to  wheat. 

Patua  rice,  of  small  pearl-white  grains,  is  the  most  esteemed  of 
eastern  products,  but  the  large  white,  sweet-grained  rice  of  South 
Carolina  is  superior  to  all  other  descriptions,  and  the  most  widely  cul- 
tivated. The  eastern  rice  is  usually  shipped  in  its  hulls,  while  that 
from  the  southern  States  is  always  decorticated  or  cleaned.  It  grows 
best  on  lands  that  can  be  flooded,  and  on  the  islands  of  the  coast  the 
fields  are  usually  dyked  in,  or  surrounded  by  ditches,  and  regularly 
flooded  at  high  tide,  so  that  the  water  is  retained  on  them  after  the 
ebb.  Two  crops  can  be  secured  in  one  year,  and  the  total  product 
of  rice  is  estimated  at  six  times  that  of  wheat.  Its  use  in  the  more- 
northern  countries,  iu  the  place  of  potatoes,  which  are  generally  more 
expensive  and  always  more  uncertain  in  quality,  is  much  restricted 
by  the  general  ignorance  of  how  to  cook  it.  Grocers  in  the  northern 
States,  who  handle  rice  mainly  as  a  luxury,  and  sell  a  few  pounds  to> 
go  in  soups  and  puddings,  can  have  no  idea  of  its  wide  sale  in  tho 
South,  where  a  very  moderate-sized  store  will  have  four  tierces  of  it 
open  at  ouce,  close  to  the  doorway,  and  labeled  with  price-cards,  each 
tierce  being  a  different  grade — as  fancy,  whole,  middling  and  bmall. 
The  grades  depend  almost  wholly  on  the  damage  done  to  the  grain 
in  hulling  it ;  there  is  no  limit  to  the  grades  which  can  be  reckoned, 
from  the  fancy  head  rice  down  to  the  finely-powdered  article. 

The  broken  rice,  if  freed  from  grit,  is  equally  as  good  as  the 
whole  grain.  The  small  rice  is  sometimes  ground  into  flour,  and  is 


124  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

used  to  a  considerable  extent  to  adulterate  wheat  flour,  to  give  it 
•whiteness.  Although  rice  constitutes  so  large  a  portion  of  the  food 
of  the  human  family,  with  us  it  is  used  more  as  a  luxury  in  the  form 
of  puddings,  cakes,  jellies  and  soups.  It  is  easy  of  digestion,  and  an 
excellent  food  for  invalids.  In  the  East,  wines  and  fermented  liquors 
are  made  from  rice.  The  average  annual  imports  into  this  country 
are  not  less  than  75,000,000  pounds,  of  the  value  of  $2,000,000  ; 
and  the  exports  for  the  same  period  aggregate  15,500,000  pounds,  at 
a  value  of  $428,617. 

ROPE. — This  is  a  general  name  for  all  kinds  of  cordage,  but 
more  correctly  applied  to  cordage  of  more  than  an  inch  in  circumfer- 
ence, the  smaller  sorts  being  called  twines,  cords  and  lines.  The 
varieties  of  rope  are  numerous,  including  the  Manilla,  sizal,  cotton, 
hemp,  and  cordage  made  of  different  kinds  of  grasses.  The  culti- 
vated hemp  and  flax  are  preferred  in  making  rope,  as  the  fibres  pos- 
sess great  tenacity.  [For  approximate  weight  and  strength,  see 
tables  in  this  book.] 

ROSIN. — The  residue  remaining,  after  distilling  crude  turpen- 
tine, obtained  from  the  pine  tree.  The  water  and  volatile  oil  pass 
over,  and  the  rosin  remains  as  a  pale  yellow,  and  transparent  or 
brownish  yellow,  and  translucent,  according  to  the  purity  of  the  crude 
turpentine,  and  the  care  taken  in  its  manufacture.  Rosin  enters 
largely  into  use  in  the  manufactures  and  arts.  It  is  used  in  varnish 
and  cements,  in  plasters  and  ointments,  in  caulking  of  ships,  in  the 
manufacture  of  soap,  and  in  covering  the  surface  of  the  bows  of  vio- 
lins, to  produce  vibrations.  It  was  formerly  employed  in  the  produc- 
tion of  Rosin  otZ,  and  used  for  illumination.  The  rosin  of  commerce 
is  mostly  furnished  by  North  Carolina  and  Virginia. 

ROOT  BEER  EXTRACT.— Root  Beer  Extract  is  put  up  in 
•convenient  packages,  which  country  dealers  will  find  very  salable. 
Each  package  makes  about  five  gallons  of  the  beer,  and  many  dealers 
find  it  profitable  even  to  bottle  it. 

ROQUEFORT  CHEESE.— This  dainty,  the  use  of  which  is 
confined  to  the  richest  families,  is  made  from  the  milk  of  sheep  and 
goats,  at  the  town  of  Roquefort,  in  France.  The  milk  is  skimmed, 
strained,  and  warmed  to  a  boiling  point — left  to  gather  into  curds, 
the  rennet  added,  and  then  made  into  cream.  Then  bread,  made 
from  the  finest  barley,  which  is  put  into  a  damp  place  until  every 
c-rumb  has  become  covered  with  mould,  is  mixed  with  brewers'  yeast, 
kneaded  until  it  comes  into  a  paste,  and  again  thoroughly  baked. 
This  hard  crust  is  then  pounded  in  a  mortar  into  a  fine  powder,  and 
layers  of  the  bread  and  curd  are  placed  alternately  in  the  cheese 
moulds,  wrapped  in  linen  and  dried.  After  laying  in  this  condition 
for  several  days,  it  is  taken  to  certain  vaults  in  the  limestone  caves  in 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  125 

the  rocks  close  to  the  town,  where  the  cheese,  wrapped  in  linen,  is 
piled  up  and  salted,  and  frequently  rehandled  and  rubbed,  so  that  the 
salt  will  penetrate  them,  after  which  they  are  scraped  and  pricked 
with  long  needles,  so  that  the  mould  may  run  entirely  through  them, 
and  they  are  again  piled  up  until  perfectly  dry  and  covered  with 
long,  white  mould.  Very  few  people  who  know  the  cheese  well,  are 
aware  of  the  care  taken  to  please  their  palates.  [See  Cheese.] 

RUM. — A  spirit  made  by  fermenting  and  distilling  the  sweets- 
that  accrue  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar.  It  is  also  made  from  the 
skimmings  of  scum  from  the  hot  molasses  ;  but  this  is  of  inferior 
quality.  When  first  distilled  it  is  white,  but  is  usually  colored  with 
burnt  sugar  or  caramel.  The  quality  of  rum  is  much  improved  by 
age,  and  as  much  as  sixteen  dollars  has  been  paid  for  an  imperial  pint 
bottle  of  old  rum.  It  is  imported  from  all  sugar-growing  countries. 
Its  adulteration  and  very  strong  odor  has  considerably  checked  its  use 
in  this  country,  as  compared  with  other  liquors.  The  term  "Pine- 
apple Rum"  is  derived  from  a  custom  adopted  in  some  West  India 
Islands  to  put  slices  of  pineapple  in  the  casks  to  flavor  the  rum. 

RUST. — Rust  does  more  mischief  than  any  amount  of  wear  and 
tear.  All  goods  subject  to  rust,  such  as  tinware,  etc.,  should  be  kept 
in  a  dry  place,  whether  intended  for  immediate  sale,  for  show  or  for 
storage.  All  such  packages  should  be  plentifully  rubbed  with  oil,  to- 
prevent  rust.  Articles  already  rusted  can  be  cleansed  with  emery 
cloth  and  sweet  oil ;  and  if  considerably  rusted,  a  good  soaking  in 
sweet  oil  for  a  week  will  restore  them  to  their  normal  condition. 

RUSSET. — A  species  of  eating  apple,  of  reddish-brown  color,, 
coming  to  maturity  in  the  fall.  [See  Apples.] 

RYE. — One  of  the  staples  of  American  and  European  produce, 
very  similer  to  wheat  and  next  in  order  to  it  in  quality,  though  not 
nearly  so  nutritious.  It  is  extremely  hardy,  and  of  all  the  cultiva- 
ted grains  has  not  shown  any  material  improvement  from  that  grow- 
ing wild.  When  made  into  bread,  it  is  heavy,  close  and  coarse.  In 
Russia  it  is  the  chief  food  of  the  working  population  ;  but  in 
America  the  chief  consumption  is  among  the  Anglo-Saxon  or  native 
sections  of  the  community.  Bread  made  from  rye  has  aromatic  and 
stimulating  properties,  which  are  increased  in  baking,  which  make  it 
a  special  favorite  with  the  Germanic  and  North-of-Europe  emigrants  ; 
but  there  are  only  a  few  mills  which  make  the  production  of  rye-flour 
a  specialty,  and  these  are  of  rather  a  primitive  character. 

SACK. — A  bag  or  package  made  of  course,  heavy  hemp  or 
other  fibrous  material,  in  which  flour  and  other  pulverized  grain  is 
brought  to  market.  Salt  and  other  coarser  goods  are  also  sold  iu 
sacks.  These  sacks  are  by  no  means  uniform  in  the  weight  and 
quality  of  their  contents,  sis  they  vary  with  each  brand. 


126  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

SAGE. — Sage  is  an  aromatic  herb,  much  used  in  culinary  prep- 
arations, on  account  of  its  peculiar  smell  and  astringent  character. 
It  is  the  basis,  also,  of  a  strong  essential  oil.  The  leaves  are  dried 
and  sold  in  packages  for  flavoring  soups,  preparing  sauces,  stuffing 
fowls,  etc. 

SAGE  CHEESE. — A  specialty,  in  which  sage  is  the  principal 
element ;  is  made  by  cutting  up  the  sage  very  finely,  and  mixing  it 
with  the  curds.  It  is  sometimes  termed  green  cheese.  [See  Cheese.] 

SAGO. — Sago  is  a  kind  of  starch  prepared  from  several  of  the. 
species  of  .the  palm-tree.  When  it  is  taken  from  the  tree  it  is  in  a 
coarse  powder,  which  is  mixed  with  farina  and  water,  and  is  strained 
through  sieves  until  the  water  is  drawn  off.  It  is  then  dried  into  a 
ineal,  and  moulded  into  any  desired  form.  As  it  comes  to  this  coun- 
try, it  is  prepared  by  making  it  into  a  paste  with  water,  and  then 
granulated.  It  is  less  nutritive  than  most  other  farinaceous  foods,  as 
it  is  almost  pure  starch.  The  best  sago  is  of  a  slightly  reddish  color, 
and  readily  dissolves  in  hot  water,  though  it  is  soluble  in  cold  water. 
A  single  tree  will  yield  from  five  hundred  to  six  hundred  pounds  of 
sago.  When  boiled  it  swells  considerably  and  forms  a  jelly.  Sago 
is  adulterated  by  the  addition  of  potato  starch,  but  may  easily  be  de- 
tected by  the  microscope.  Alcohol  may  be  distilled  from  it  in  con- 
siderable quantities. 

SALADS. — Under  this  general  head,  lettuce,  endive,  cabbage 
of  various  descriptions  are  necessarily  included,  which  are  eaten  raw 
and  dressed  with  vinegar,  oil  and  other  condiments.  Cresses,  parsley, 
beet-root,  mint,  young  onion  tops,  capers,  dandelions  and  various 
other  vegetables  of  an  aromatic  nature,  are  also  mixed  with  those  first 
named,  seasoned  and  flavored  with  oil,  vinegar,  salt  and  pepper,  and 
form  one  of  the  most  inviting  dishes  for  the  dinner  or  supper  table,  in 
summer  and  fall.  Meats,  when  used  in  salads,  whether  lobster,  crab, 
flesh  or  fowl,  should  not  be  minced,  but  cut  in  small,  square  pieces, 
from  half  an  inch  to  one  inch  square.  Salads  are  growing  rapidly  in 
favor  ;  and  all  grocers  desiring  to  preserve  a  select  trade,  should  keep 
a  choice  assortment  of  salad  oils,  mustards,  vinegar  and  spices,  during 
the  season,  as  salads  are  in  daily  increasing  demand. 

SALAD  DRESSING.  —  This  is  a  preparation  put  up  in  conven- 
ient form,  in  bottles,  ready  for  use,  so  that  housekeepers  and  fam- 
ilies have  merely  to  add  to  it  the  green  meat  grown  in  their  own 
garden,  or  obtained  from  the  grocer,  and  place  it  on  the  table. 

SALT. — The  most  important  item  in  the  manufacture  of  butter 
and  cheese,  and  in  the  preservation  of  meat  and  other  material  for 
preservation,  is  the  character  and  quality  of  the  Salt  used.  We  do 
not  propose  to  recommend  any  special  brand  of  salt,  but  merely  to 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  127 

recommend  to  dairy  produce  men  and  grocers  the  principles  on  which 
they  should  select  their  salt  for  its  respective  uses.  Salt  is  produced 
from  nearly  all  sections  of  the  civilized  world,  large  supplies  of  the 
several  descriptions  of  salt  coming  from  France,  Spain,  Portugal, 
Italy,  Central  and  South  America.  The  pages  of  history  prove  that 
the  European  supplies  (which  were  at  one  time  sufficient  to  supply 
the  home  demand  for  the  entire  continent,  and  also  leave  a  considwr- 
able  amount  for  export),  were  chiefly  from  Russia,  France,  Spain, 
Portugal  and  Italy — the  largest  portion  of  the  salt  being  found  in 
mines  and  beds,  in  connection  with  other  geologic  formations,  and 
consequently  known  as  Rock-salt.  These  beds  were  doubtless  formed 
by  portions  of  the  sea  cut  off  from  the  main  body,  and,  the  water 
having  evaporated  or  drained  off,  the  entire  saline  constituents,  in 
perfect  purity,  are  left  behind  in  solid  beds,  needing  only  to  be  ex- 
tracted bodily  and  sold.  Very  frequently  these  natural  salt  beds  are 
contaminated  with  various  impurities,  coloring  matters  being  present 
which  make  it  of  a  blue,  red  or  yellow  color.  In  this  country  there 
are  large  deposits  of  rock-salt  in  Louisiana,  which  served  for  the  al- 
most entire  supply  of  the  Southern  States  during  the  rebellion.  No 
country  is  better  supplied  with  sources  of  salt,  nor  with  better  water 
for  making  salt  than  our  own.  The  State  of  New  York  has  a  bed 
of  salt  underlying  nearly  all  of  its  southern  half,  which  extends  under 
Lake  Erie,  and  crops  out  in  Upper  Canada,  Michigan,  and  still 
farther  west.  Pennsylvania,  Ohio  and  West  Virginia  have  their 
special  deposits,  and  the  Southern  and  south-western  States  have  also 
an  apparently  inexhaustible  supply.  Natural,  brines  furnish  nearly 
all  the  salt  manufactured  in  the  United  States.  They  are  found 
abundantly  at  Syracuse  and  Onondaga,  New  York,  in  the  Saginaw 
Valley,  Michigan,  at  Saltville,  Virginia,  in  Ohio,  Nebraska,  and  va- 
rious other  localities.  These  brines  are  treated  in  somewhat  different 
manners,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  salt  which  the  manufacturer 
desires  to  produce.  For  the  production  of  coarse  salt,  artificial  heat 
is  not  employed,  the  evaporation  being  effected  by  solar  heat  alone. 
In  this  country  the  evaporation  is  conducted  in  wooden  vats,  supplied 
with  wooden  covers,  for  excluding  rain  and  to  lessen  the  cooling  of 
the  brine  during  the  night.  In  order  to  remove  the  impurities  of  the 
brine  (which  consist  chiefly  of  sulphate  of  lime,  gypsum,  chlorides  of 
calcium  and  magnesium,  and  carbonate  of  iron) ,  several  different  vats 
are  used  in  the  evaporation,  the^brine  being  drawn  successively  from 
one  vat  to  the  other.  For  the  production  of  common  fine  salt,  large 
iron  pans  or  kettles  are  used.  After  the  impurities  are  removed,  it 
is  allowed  to  drain  for  some  hours,  the  salt  is  removed  to  the  stove 
rooms,  where  it  is  dried  for  two  or  three  weeks,  when  it  is  fit  to  be 
barrelled  and  sent  to  market.  There  are  two  methods  of  evapora- 
tion used  in  the  manufacture  of  salt,  according  to  which  the  name  of 
the  salt  is  determined.  That  made  by  exposure  to  the  air  is  called 


128  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

"  Solar  ;"  that  produced  by  boiling  ie  called  "  Boiled."  Solar  salt, 
as  it  comes  from  the  vat,  is  called  "  Ordinary  Coarse."  When 
screened,  the  coarsest  is  called  "  Diamond  C  ;  "  the  second  grade  is 
called  "  Diamond  B  C,"  and  the  finest  "  Diamond  F."  "  Common 
Coarse,"  when  ground,  is  called  "  Ground  Solar,"  and  an  equal  mix- 
ture of"  Common  Coarse  "and  "Common  Boiled, "is  called  "Ground 
Alum."  "  No.  2  Ordinary  Coarse  "  is  dirty,  unscreened  solar  salt, 
and  is  used  for  salting  hides  and  other  purposes,  where  cleanliness  is 
of  no  special  consequence. 

The  chief  brands  of  Boiled  Salt  are  three  in  number  :  The  salt, 
as  it  comes  from  the  kettle,  is  termed  "  Common  Fine."  If,  in  the 
process  of  boiling,  an  ingredient  is  thrown  in  to  cut  and  soften  tho 
grain,  it  is  denominated  "Anthracite  ;"  and,  if  made  from  the  water 
as  it  comes  from  the  wells,  it  is  termed  "Agricultural,"  signifying 
the  use  to  which  it  is  devoted.  From  the  "Common  Fine,"  or  com- 
mon boiled  salt,  the  "Factory-Filled,"  or  FF  salt,  for  dairy  and  do- 
mestic purposes,  is  made.  It  is  put  through  a  special  chemical  pro- 
cess, by  which  all  the  impurities  are  removed,  then  dried,  ground, 
and  put  up  in  barrels,  bags,  pockets,  etc.,  just  as  it  appears  in  the 
market. 

In  the  use  of  American  or  any  other  salt,  care  should  be  taken 
to  use  the  several  brands  for  the  purpose  they  were  intended  for. 
The  solar  salts  are  designed  for  packing,  curing  and  preserving  pro- 
visions and  fish  ;  the  solar  salt  for  packing  meat,  the  factory-filled  for 
culinary  purposes  and  dairy  produce.  There  are  two  kinds  of  salt 
used  for  fertilizing  purposes  :  the  "Refuse"  (dirty  salt  of  all  kinds), 
and  the  "Agricultural,"  which  is  boiled  from  the  unsettled  and  unpu- 
rified  water  as  it  comes  from  the  wells,  and  containing  all  the  impu- 
rities, which  makes  it  all  the  more  valuable  as  a  fertilizer.  On  many 
soils  salt  acts  as  a  solvent  of  other  ingredients  in  the  soil,  thus  setting 
free  for  use,  as  plant-food,  elements  which  would  otherwise  be  una- 
vailable, because  insoluble.  The  quality  of  both  coarse  and  fine  salt 
depends  upon  the  amount  and  kind  of  impurities  present  in  the  brine, 
and  the  care  exercised  in  removing  them  in  the  process  of  manufac- 
ture. The  chlorides  of  calcium  and  magnesium,  and  the  sulphate  of 
magnesium,  is  present  in  large  proportions  in  the  brines  of  Michigan 
and  Ohio — hence  the  difficulty  in  usiug  either  of  them  for  dairy  pur- 
poses, as  dairy  salt  should  be  entirely  free  from  these  bitter  salts. 
The  New  York  salt,  being  comparatively  free  from  them,  is  found 
specially  suitable  for  that  use.  Ordinary  coarse  salt  is  chiefly  used 
in  salting  pork  and  beef,  whilst  common  fine  salt  answers  well  enough 
for  ordinary  table  use,  and  large  quantities  are  converted  iuto  "soda," 
to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap  and  glass,  and  by  the  house- 
keeper in  cooking.  Hydrochloric  or  muriatic  acid,  used  extensively 
in  the  arts,  and  chlorine,  employed  in  the  bleacherics  for  bleaching 
cloths,  are  made  by  decomposing  common  salt.  The  imported  brands 


THE    GROCERS    COMPANION.  129 

from  Liverpool  come  in  bags  weighing  two  hundred  and  twenty-four 
pounds  ;  that  from  New  York  State  in  barrels  and  bags  of  two  hun- 
dred and  forty  and  two  hundred  and  eighty  pounds  ;  the  Saginaw  in 
two  hundred  and  forty  pound  barrels  ;  the  table  salt  comes  in  cases 
containing  sixty  boxes,  each  containing  two  pounds.  Salt  also  comes 
in  small  packets,  put  up  in  sacks,  three  sizes,  viz.,  twenty-five  ten- 
pound  packets,  forty  six-pounds,  and  eighty  three-pounds.  The  an- 
nual production  of  salt  in  the  United  States  aggregates  about 
25,000,000  bushels,  the  home  consumption  amounting  to  15,000,000 
bushels. 

The  Onondag*  salines,  in  New  York  State  belong  to  the  State, 
which  receives  a  royalty  of  one-cent  a  bushel,  the  cost  of  manufac- 
ture is  about  six  cents  a  bushel,  and  the  average  yield  exceeds 
8,000,000  bushels  ;  those  ia  the  valley  of  the  great  Kanawha,  in 
West  Virginia,  yield  about  half  the  quantity  of  the  Onondaga.  Salt 
manufactured  in  the  United  States  is  much  better  than  that  made  in 
Spain  or  the  Azores.  Large  quantities  of  salt  are  imported  into 
this  country  from  Turk's  Island. 

SALMON. — Whether  in  Europe  or  the  United  States,  Salmon 
is  and  always  will  be  a  favorite  dish.  It  is  the  most  delicious  eating 
of  all  the  tinny  tribe.  In  the  United  States  it  is  found  in  some  of  the 
rivers  of  Maine  ;  on  the  Pacitic  coast  it  has  achieved  the-magnitude 
of  a  commercial  pursuit,  and  on  the  Columbia  River,  in  Oregon, 
large  numbers  of  men  make  it  a  very  profitable  occupation.  The 
fish  are  taken  only  at  night ;  and  when  the  water  is  clear  and  the 
weather  favorable,  two  men  with  a  boat  and  tackle,  will  realize 
twelve  hundred  pounds  weight  in  a  single  night.  Salmon  are  found 
in  great  abundance  in  the  waters  of  Alaska,  considerable  quantities 
being  packed  in  barrels  and  shipped  to  the  eastern  markets.  The 
artificial  production  of  salmon  is  now  being  carried  on  by  the  United 
States  Fish  Commission,  and  the  principal  streams  have  been  stocked 
with  the  young  fish.  Salmon  is  sold  fresh,  in  bulk,  but  chiefly  as 
canned  goods  ;  the  oldest  and  most  popular  brands  of  salmon  com- 
mand high  prices,  but  many  of  the  newer  and  less  known  are  quite 
equal  in  flavor  and  quality,  and  bring  as  good  a  price.  Dried  and 
smoked  salmon  (in  which  form  they  first  appeared  in  our  interior 
markets)  still  maintain  their  importance.  It  is  also  canned  with  va- 
rious spices.  The  take  of  salmon  on  the  Columbia  River,  averages 
about  1,700,000  annually,  weighing  not  less  than  oO, 500, 000  pounds. 
The  salmon  on  the  Pacific  coast  weigh  from  ten  to  thirty  pounds,  and 
are  canned  in  factories  located  at  the  river's  edge  ;  the  great  care 
taken  both  in  the  selection,  the  preparation  and  the  canning  of  the 
Pacific  salmon,  has  placed  them  at  the  top  of  the  quotations,  both  for 
home  consumption  and  for  export. 

The  salmon  is  very  extensively  distributed  in  northern  Europe 


130  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

and  America,  being  found  in  Great  Britain,  the  Orkneys,  France, 
Belgium,  Holland,  Germany,  Russia,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway 
and  Iceland,  getting  across  from  the  English  Channel  and  to  north- 
ern seas  by  the  Tweed,  Tay,  Severn,  Loire,  Rhine,  Elbe,  etc. ;  it 
does  not  occur  in  rivers  falling  into  the  Mediterranean,  and  does  not 
come  below  the  45th  parallel  of  latitude  ;  in  North  America  it  fre- 
quents the  rivers  of  Labrador,  Canada,  Newfoundland,  Nova  Scotia, 
New  England,  and  those  of  New  York  communicating  with  the  St. 
Lawrence,  ascending  even  to  Lake  Ontario.  Salmon  can  live  with- 
out access  to  the  sea,  as  is  seen  in  Sebago  and  other  landlocked  lakes 
of  Maine,  but  they  are  of  inferior  size  and  quality.  The  river  Thames 
Eng.,  was  once  celebrated  for  its  salmon,  but  its  stream  is  now  too 
impure  to  invite  them  to  enter.  The  Merrimac  River,  Mass.,  for- 
merly swarmed  with  salmon,  weighing  from  nine  to  twelve  pounds, 
but  the  numerous  dams  and  manufacturing  establishments  have  driven 
them  away,  and  the  northern  markets  are  now  supplied  from  the 
Kennebec  River  and  the  British  Provinces,  and  from  the  Pacific 
coast.  The  salmon  enters  the  rivers  of  Nova  Scotia  in  the  latter  part 
of  April,  the  rivers  emptying  into  the  Bay  of  Fundy  a  month  later, 
and  those  emptying  into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  in  June.  The 
flesh  of  the  salmon  is  exceedingly  delicate,  and  of  a  tint  of  pink  which 
has  received  therefrom  the  name  of  salmon-colored. 

SALTPETRE.— The  scientific  name  of  this  product  is  Nitrate 
of  Potassium,  and  is  also  generally  known  as  Nitre.  It  is  chiefly 
obtained  from  Peru  and  the  East  Indies  ;  forms  the  principal  ingre- 
dient in  gunpowder,  is  a  powerful  antiseptic,  and  is  largely  used  in 
the  preservation  and  corning  of  meats,  butter,  etc.  Saltpetre  imparts 
a  bright  red  color  to  animal  substances  into  which  it  is  rubbed. 

SAMP. — A  term  sometimes  used  for  hominy,  especially  the 
large-grained  description  (so  common  in  the  Southern  States),  the 
half-kernel  and  the  whole  kernel  samp. 

SAMPLES. — The  sending  of  samples  by  mail,  by  all  tradesmen, 
has  become  an  important  arrangement  in  every  New  England  city  : 
and  has  proved  almost  as  advantageous  to  the  grocery  trade  as  to  the 
dry  goods,  the  grain  trade  and  other  departments  of  commerce.  Mer- 
chandise, seeds,  cuttings,  etc., — anything  which  is  not  liable  to  be 
destroyed,  defaced  or  damaged,  or  of  a  nature  calculated  to  damage 
the  usual  contents  of  the  mail-bag,  can  be  mailed  at  the  rate  of  one 
cent  per  ounce.  Metallic  packages  have  been  constructed  for  the 
mailing  of  samples  of  flour,  soap  and  other  similar  articles.  The  list 
of  unmailable  articles  includes  liquids,  poisons,  explosive  and  imflam- 
mable  substances,  liquefied  or  liquefiable  fats  or  oils,  live  or  dead  an- 
imals (not  stuffed),  insects  and  reptiles,  fruits  or  vegetable  matters, 
confectionery,  pastes  and  strong-smelling  substances. 


THE    GROCERS    COMPANION.  131 

SANDWICH  MEATS.— A  novel  article  in  canned  goods, 
prepared  ready  for  use  in  making  sandwiches,  and  usually  consist- 
ing of  thin  slices  of  ham,  tongue,  etc.  ;  they  are  also  sold  minced. 
very  fine. 

SAPOLIO. — A  description  of  soap  specially  designed  for 
cleansing  metals,  wood,  etc.,  and  other  domestic  purposes — the  prin- 
cipal element  in  it  being  a  finely-powdered  silica,  mixed  with  alkali 
and  other  cleansing  material. 

SAPONIFIER. — Another  washing  or  cleansing  compound, 
used  for  soap-making,  softening  water,  and  other  domestic  purposes. 
It  is  a  strong  lye,  and  comes  in  one-pound  tin  cans. 

SAP-SAGO. — A  delicately -flavored  cheese,  made  in  Germany 
and  Switzerland.  It  is  of  a  dark-green  color,  flavored  with  melitot- 
leaves,  and  when  prepared  for  table  use  should  be  grated. 

SARDINES.— These  "little  fishes  boiled  in  oil"  originated  an 
industry  which  has  contributed  materially  to  the  prosperity  of  the 
coast  population  of  France.  They  took  their  name  from  the  place  in 
which  they  were  first  caught,  viz.,  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  near 
Sardinia.  They  are  from  three  to  five  inches  in  length,  and  the  fish- 
ery gives  employment  to  about  thirty-five  thousand  people,  and  in  the 
preparation  of  the  fish  to  quite  as  many  more.  Large  quantities  of 
these  fish  are  shipped  to  the  United  States,  but  they  are  not  so  gener- 
ally used  as  they  formerly  were,  the  fish  having  degenerated,  through 
the  substitution  of  ground-nut  and  cotton-seed  oil  for  the  pure  olive- 
oil,  which  should  be  used.  The  plentiful  supply  of  canned  fish,  meats 
and  poultry,  have  also  contributed  greatly  to  their  diminution.  The 
"American  Sardine,"  as  it  is  called,  is  simply  a  preparation  of  the 
smaller  "  whitefish"  or  menhaden,  which  are  canned  at  Eastport, 
Lubec,  Jonesport  and  several  other  places  in  Maine.  There  are  also 
several  factories  in  operation  at  the  present  time  in  New  Jersey.  The 
fish  are  prepared  by  softening  the  bones  by  steam,  and  trimming  the 
body  to  the  proper  size.  Many  of  the  retail  dealers  of  New  York 
and  other  cities  regard  the  American  sardines  with  suspicion  and  even 
dislike.  The  entire  packing  done  in  the  United  States  is  a  little  over 
seventy-two  thousand  cases. 

SAUCES — Are  compounds  of  vegetables,  meats,  spices,  etc., 
mixed  with  wine  or  vinegar,  reduced  to  a  liquid  form  and  used  as  a 
relish  or  condiment  to  use  with  other  food.  There  are  a  large  num- 
ber in  the  market,  both  English  and  American,  and  are  very  various 
both  in  quality  and  flavor,  each  .  manufacturer  generally  having  one 
or  more  recipes  in  his  possession,  which  he  makes  a  specialty.  The 
American  sauces  have,  however,  latterly  reached  such  a  pitch  of 
perfection,  that  they  have  gained  a  decided  precedence  in  their  own 
markets  and  also  in  foreign  markets. 


132  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

SAUERKRAUT. — A  dish  of  German  origin,  and  consisting 
of  close  heads  of  white  cabbage,  cut  into  fine  shreds,  placed  in  a  cask 
or  barrel,  with  salt,  peppercorns,  caraway  seeds  or  anise  seeds,  etc., 
and  placed  under  heavy  pressure.  After  a  severe  pounding,  it  is  al- 
lowed to  remain  for  some  days  in  a  warm  place  until  fermentation 
takes  place,  when  it  emits  a  very  disagreeable  acid,  fetid  odor.  Some 
strong  brine  is  then  added,  and  it  is  considered  ready  for  use.  It  is 
partly  washed  from  the  salt  before  using,  and  is  eaten  boiled  or  fried 
with  meats,  or  cold  as  a  salad.  It  requires  about  two  hours  to  com- 
plete its  cooking. 

SAUSAGE.  —  Pork,  beef  or  other  meats,  chopped  up  very 
finely,  and  mixed  with  various  seasoning  herbs  and  other  ingredi- 
ents, and  enclosed  in  a  skin.  Portable  machines  are  now  sold  for 
making  them,  and  housekeepers  can  make  their  own  sausages, 
without  the  labor  and  tediousness  of  chopping  with  a  knife. 

SCOOPS. — These  are  very  essential  articles  in  a  grocery  store  ; 
and  every  grocer  should  supply  himself  with  a  plentiful  number  of 
good,  strong  scoops  of  all  sizes,  and  of  a  lasting  and  satisfactory 
character.  Steel  scoops  and  three-ply  wooden  scoops  arc  among  the 
best. 

SCRAPPLE. — Another  German  dish,  composed  as  follows  : — 
A  young  pig's  head,  well  boiled ;  then  chopped  up  very  fine,  and 
mixed  with  the  liquor  in  which  it  has  been  boiled ;  which  is  after- 
wards thickened  with  buckwheat  and  Indian  meal,  and  seasoned  with 
spices  and  herbs.  It  is  then  placed  in  pans  to  cool,  when  it  is  sliced 
and  fried  for  the  table. 

SCALES. — Among  all  the  fittings  pertaining  to  the  storekeeper, 
there  is  no  article  requiring  such  constant  care  and  attention  as  the 
Scales.  In  this  article  particularly,  the  best  will  be  found  by  far  the 
cheapest  in  the  long  run.  There  should  always  be  two  or  more  pairs 
kept  of  a  size  suitable  to  the  bulk  and  character  of  the  goods  to  be 
weighed  on  them  ;  and  special  care  should  be  taken  not  to  get  them 
out  of  order  by  overstraining  them  with  the  bulky  or  heavy  goods. 

SEALING  WAX.— Though  the  use  of  this  article  has  been 
largely  superseded  in  many  departments  of  trade  and  commerce  by 
the  gummed  envelope,  the  rubber  ring  and  other  ingenious  devices, 
there  are  yet  remaining  many  ways  in  which  it^  use  may  be  made 
advantageous.  It  is  usually  made  by  mixing  shellac,  Venice  turpen- 
tine, Peru  balsam,  vermillion  and  sulphate  of  lime  ;  and  in  the 
cheaper  kinds,  led  lead  is  substituted  for  vermillion,  and  common 
rosin  is  also  added.  Black  sealing  wax  is  made  by  substituting  ivory 
black  for  the  vermilion  or  red  lead. 


THE    GROCER'S  COMPANION.  133 

SEA-MOSS. — This  marine  vegetable  (for,  growing  near  the 
sea,  it  partakes  more  of  the  character  of  seaweed)  is  also  known  by 
the  names  Sea-moss  Farine,  Iceland  Moss,  Reindeer  Moss  and  Lich- 
enine.  It  is  universally  known  for  its  nutritious,  restorative  and 
medicinal  qualities.  As  a  diet  for  infants,  weakly  children  and  in- 
valids, it  is  invaluable.  It  is  sometimes  pounded  and  made  into 
bread;  boiled  in  water  or  milk  (generally  milk),  and  made  into  a 
jelly  ;  is  often  made  up  into  puddings,  pastry  and  blancmanges,  and 
mixed  with  cocoa,  chocolate  or  broma — in  either  way  proving  highly 
nutritious  and  palatable.  It  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  starch  ; 
grows  abundantly  on  the  shores  of  the  northern  seas,  and,  in  some 
southern  countries,  on  the  mountain  lands. 

SEEDS. — Seeds,  both  for  the  flower  and  kitchen  garden,  are 
articles  which  every  grocer  may  keep  on  his  shelves  without  incon- 
venience, as  they  do  not  take  up  much  room,  find  a  ready  sale,  and 
afford  a  good  margin  for  profit.  The  only  precautions  necessary  are 
not  to  lay  in  too  heavy  a  stock,  and  to  carefully  protect  them  from, 
the  action  of  the  air  or  artificial  heat. 

SELF-MEASURING  FAUCETS.— These  are  specially  de- 
signed for  grocers'  use,  and  will  be  found  very  desirable  in  measuring 
liquids  (especially  molasses,  oils,  etc.),  as  they  can  be  used  in  the 
coldest  weather  without  the  chance  of  freezing  or  congealing.  The 
faucet  holds  exactly  one  gill,  or  quarter  of  a  pint  (standard  measure ), 
at  one  time — hence  its  title  of  self-measuring. 

SEMOLINA. — A  preparation  of  wheat  grown  in  Italy  and 
southern  Europe,  similar  to  macaroni,  and  which  is  the  residue  of  the 
grain  not  reduced  to  powder  after  passing  through  the  bolting  machine. 
There  are  various  inferior  imitations,  but  the  true  semolina  is  dry 
and  hard.  It  is  very  nutritious,  and  is  used  like  rice,  in  soups  and 
puddings.  A  similar  preparation  is  made  from  maize  and  millet,  but 
it  is  very  inferior,  both  in  quality  and  flavor. 

SHAD. — Fish  principally  inhabiting  the  northern  hemisphere 
— living  in  the  sea  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  but  ascending  the 
rivers  in  the  spring  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  their  spawn.  They 
abound  in  the  Hudson  and  Delaware  Rivers,  and  in  Chesapeake  Bay, 
and  furnish  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  fish  supply  to  the  commu- 
nity, being  sold  both  fresh  and  salted  in  our  markets,  and  preserved 
for  a  still  greater  length  of  time  by  the  process  of  freezing.  Through 
the  exertions  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  the  rivers  con- 
nected with  the  Gulf  and  on  the  Pacific  slopes,  have  been  stocked  with 
young  shad,  artificially  hatched.  When  fresh,  the  fish  are  solid, 
scales  bright  and  gills  crimson;  those  stale  and  unfit  for  food  may 
easily  be  distinguished  by  their  soft,  flabby  condition,  and  the  whitish 


134  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

color  of  the  gills.    They  are  in  season  from  April  to  June.    The  shad 
roes  are  a  favorite  and  exceedingly  palatable  dish. 

SHADINE. — These,  strictly  speaking,  are  young  shad,  and  are 
frequently  trimmed,  put  up  in  oil,  and  sold  as  sardines.  They  are 
not  over  six  inches  in  length,  and  are  caught  off  the  New  York 
and  New  Jersey  coasts. 

SHADDOCK. — A  fruit  of  the  orange  species,  frequently  seen 
and  sold  in  our  fruit  stores,  imported  from  the  West  Indies.  It  is 
considerably  larger  than  the  lemon,  keeps  fresh  for  a  longer  period, 
has  an  abundance  of  juice,  and  has  also  a  much  stronger  acid.  It  is 
chiefly  used  to  flavor  punches,  make  (so-called)  lemonades,  and  fig- 
ures largely  in  preserves,  but  its  flavor  is  not  so  delicate. 

SHAKER  GOODS.— This  term  includes  a  large  number  of 
articles — Dry  Goods,  Cereal  Products  and  Groceries — all  of  which 
are  specially  characterized  by  their  great  purity  and  extreme  cleanli- 
ness. The  Shaker  communities  exist  in  various  sections  of  the  United 
States,  and  bring  to  our  markets  agricultural  produce  of  all  kinds, 
such  as  canned  goods,  herbs,  fruit-butters,  jellies,  apple-sauce,  etc. 

SHELLS. — The  shells  or  outer  coverings  of  many  of  our  food- 
products  are  capable  of  beiug  utilized  with  advantage,  both  to  the 
consumer  and  the  tradesman.  One  of  the  most  useful  and  popular 
of  these,  from  a  domestic  point  of  view,  is  the  shell  of  the  cocoa 
bean,  after  preparation  by  roasting.  It  contains  all  the  nutritive 
properties  of  chocolate  and  cocoa,  but  is  not  so  rich,  and  therefore 
much  more  healthy  as  a  beverage.  Its  use  is  chiefly  confined  to  New 
York  and  New  England,  where  it  is  universally  used,  not  only  in  the 
domestic  circle,  but  at  the  hotels  and  restaurants. 

SHELLS  ARK. — One  of  the  many  varieties  of  nuts  commonly 
used  as  a  dessert.  It  is  a  species  of  hickory,  and  has  a  very  thin 
shell.  It  is  also  used  as  a  confection  or  candy,  under  the  name  of 
*'  Shellbark  caramels." 

SHOT. — Even  in  times  of  peace,  shot  is  a  necessary  article  to 
every  community,  and  must  necessarily  be  kept  in  abuudant  and  con- 
stant supply  at  every  store  professing  to  keep  pace  with  the  wants  of 
the  people.  They  are  manufactured  from  a  compound  of  lead  and 
arsenic,  the  arsenic  being  added  to  render  the  lead  more  capable  of 
being  moulded  into  the  required  form.  Shot  are  made  in  several 
sizes,  to  suit  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  required,  and  are  distin- 
guished both  by  numbers  and  letters.  The  smallest-sized  shot  i» 
No.  12,  and  the  size  increases  in  proportion  until  it  reaches  No.  1, 
which  represents  buckshot,  fifty  to  the  pound. 

SHOW-CASES. — Show-cases  are  a  positive  necessity  to  every 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  135 

tradesman — the  grocer  more  particularly.  The  days  when  blacking 
and  violet-powder  could  be  huddled  up  with  salt  fish  and  soda  on  one 
shelf,  have  long  since  passed  away..  If  a  grocer  wishes  to  sell  his 
goods,  he  must  display  them  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  perfectly  protected 
from  dust  and  rough  handling,  and  this  cannot  possibly  be  done 
without  show-cases  on  his  counter,  especially  in  reference  to  the  finer 
class  of  goods. 

SHERBET. — This  beverage,  originally  introduced  from  the 
East,  Turkey,  etc.,  is  made  of  the  juices  of  various  fruits,  principally 
the  orange,  mixed  with  sugar  and  water.  It  is  frequently  scented  with 
rose-water  and  other  essences,  and  flavored  with  spices.  It  is  very 
generally  used  as  a  substitute  for  fermented  and  intoxicating  liquors, 
and  is  really  a  very  refreshing  beverage.  In  some  countries,  rum 
and  various  home-made  wines  are  mingled  with  it,  and  called  by  the 
same  name. 

SHERRY. — A  description  of  wine,  supposed  to  be  the  product 
of  grapes  from  Andalusia  or  Jerez.  It  contains  about  twenty  per 
cent,  of  alcohol ;  is  dry  and  very  exciting.  There  are  two  kinds, 
pale  and  brown  ;  both  of  which  are  very  easily,  and  unfortunately 
very  frequently,  adulterated  with  inferior'vintages  brought  up  to  the 
requisite  alcoholic  strength  by  the  addition  of  bad  and  spurious 
brandies. 

SHRIMPS. — A  small  and  favorite  fish,  similar  in  form  to  the 
lobster,  but  very  diminutive  in  size.  It  is  imported  here  in  the  pot- 
ted or  canned  form,  and  also  in  sauces,  and  are  deservedly  looked 
upon  as  a  great  delicacy.  The  common  shrimp  of  the  United  States 
is  quite  a  different  article,  and  used  principally  as  fish  bait. 

In  reference  to  the  shrimp,  lobster,  salmon,  crab,  and  all  similar 
goods  imported  in  cans,  we  would  urge  upon  every  grocer  and  con- 
sumer the  absolute  necessity  of  keeping  the  can  on  ice  until  the  con- 
tents are  used,  in  order  that  the  flesh  may  be  firm  and  fresh.  Nothing 
can  possibly  be  more  disgusting  than  to  find  the  contents  flabby  and 
warm  when  placed  on  the  table. 

SHRUB. — A  beverage  better  known  in  England  than  in  the 
United  States,  but  originated  in  the  West  Indies,  and  composed  of 
rum,  lime-juice,  sugar  and  water. 

SIEVES. — Sieves  of  all  kinds,  texture  and  sizes,  are  manufac- 
tured for  domestic  as  well  as  store  use,  a  full  stock  of  which  should 
always  be  kept  on  hand.  They  are  made  to  suit  all  purposes — such 
as  the  sifting  of  flour,  fruits,  teas,  etc.,  and  are  constructed  of  wire 
gauze,  wire,  cane,  etc.,  according  to  circumstances. 

SMELT. — A  very  small  and  delicate  fish  (weighing  about  two 
ounces  each) ,  abundant  both  in  American  and  European  waters,  of 


136  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

the  salmon  or  trout  family.     It  is  eaten,  like  whitebait,  bones  and 
all ;  and  when  fresh,  has  an  odor  very  similar  to  cucumbers. 

SMOKED  MEATS. — A  very  favorite  American  dish,  espe- 
cially in  summer.  In  order  to  be  kept  sweet  and  palatable,  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  keep  them  in  a  cool  place,  and  remove  them  from 
the  package  or  tierce  as  soon  as  possible  after  their  arrival.  The 
fresher  the  smoked  meats  are,  the  more  palatable  they  will  be  ;  it  is 
much  better  therefore  to  purchase  in  small  quantities,  so  as  to  ensure 
a  fresh  supply.  The  above  term  of  course  applies  to  hams  ;  they 
should  not  be  kept  in  their  canvassed  bags  longer  than  possible. 

SMOKED  SARDINES.— American  Sardines  are  mostly  made 
up  in  this  form.  The  operation  of  smoking  usually  reduces  the  size 
of  the  fish  very  materially  ;  and  consequently  they  are  considered 
equal  to  the  finest  quality  of  imported  sardines,  and  in  many  instances, 
are  made  to  assume  that  character. 

SNTJFF. — Snuff  is  an  article  which  every  grocer  is  bound  to 
keep,  and  is  supposed  to  be  made  from  tobacco,  crushed  into  a  fine 
powder.  The  grinding  or  pounding  is  usually  done  in  a  wooden  mor- 
tar. Some  descriptions  are  prepared  from  kiln-dried  tobacco,  while 
others  are  made  from  soft  leaves.  There  are  a  large  number  of  va- 
rieties, some  of  which  are  claimed  to  have  strong  medicinal  proper- 
ties. Snuff-taking  is  not  as  much  resorted  to  in  the  northern  and  east- 
ern States  as  formerly;  but  both  snuff-taking  and  snuff-rubbing  (an 
extremely  dirty  habit)  is  extensively  adopted  through  the  South  and 
south-west — large  quantities  being  manufactured  expressly  for  that 
trade.  The  perfumed  oils  and  essences  used  to  flavor  the  snuffs  are 
extremely  injurious.  The  snuffs  sold  in  the  northern  arid  New 
Kngland  States  are  chiefly  plain  and  unscented. 

SOAKAGE. — This  term  is  used  to  represent  an  allowance  made 
on  all  salted  articles,  when  packed,  to  compensate  for  the  amount  of 
water  absorbed  by  the  cask  or  barrel ;  and  the  amount  allowed  is  al- 
ways calculated  according  to  the  size  of  the  barrel  and  the  condition 
of  its  contents. 

SOAP. — The  Soap  manufacture  in  America  has  truly  arrived 
at  a  colossal  magnitude,  and  now  exceeds  Germany  in  its  powers  of 
production,  and  some  of  our  soap-works  possess  greater  facilities 
than  the  oldest  on  the  European  continent — one  American  establish- 
ment alone  turning  out  40,000,000  pounds  of  soap  annually.  The 
varieties  of  soap  manufactured  in  the  United  States  are  so  numerous 
that  they  cannot  be  enumerated.  There  are  between  one  hundred 
and  fifty  and  two  hundred  different  brands  of  bar  and  household  soap, 
nearly  twice  as  many  descriptions  of  fancy  and  toilet  soaps,  and  a 
large  number  of  medicated  and  patented  soaps  designed  for  specific  pur- 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  137 

poses — to  which  lists  large  additions  are  being  made  daily.  Every 
thing  known  in  the  trade  (whether  of  foreign  make  or  not)  has  its 
counterpart  in  American  manufacture,  especially  in  bar-soap  for 
household  use.  The  staple  household  article  is  a  curd-soap,  contain- 
ing more  or  less  rosin.  Soft  soaps,  such  as  are  known  in  Germany, 
are  not  manufactured  here,  the  chief  cause  being  the  cheapness  of 
the  hard  soaps.  Soft  soaps  (imported)  can  be  brought  free  to  any 
part  of  the  continent  at  three  dollars  per  hundred  weight.  As  to  the 
quality  of  soap  made  in  America,  it  is  no  worse  nor  no  more  varia- 
ble than  that  made  elsewhere  ;  it  depends  entirely  on  the  price.  The 
fats  used  for  hard  soaps  are  almost  exclusively  tallows  and  bone  fats  ; 
oleic  acid,  cotton-seed  oil  and  lard  play  a  very  subordinate  part.  Cocoa- 
nut-oil  and  palm-oil  are  but  little  used,  the  prices  being  too  high — 
probably  on  account  of  the  import  duty.  The  lyes  are  almost  exclu- 
sively prepared  from  caustic  imported  from  England,  as  only  those 
soaperies  which  possess  an  extensive  plant  for  the  purpose,  can  afford 
to  causticise  their  own  lye. 

The  fatty  acids  are  combined  with  some  metallic  base,  usually 
soda  or  potassa.  The. chief  fats  and  true  oils  are  the  palmitic,  oleic 
and  stearic,  with  glycerine  as  a  base.  When  treated  with  the  alka- 
line hydrates  or  lie,  these  fats  are  decomposed,  the  potash  or  soda  of 
the  lye  uniting  with  the  acids  and  forming  soap,  while  the  glycerine 
is  set  free.  Commercial  soaps  are  now  almost  entirely  made  with  a 
soda  base,  on  account  of  the  great  cheapness  of  soda  as  compared 
with  potassa.  Soaps  made  from  soda  are  generally  hard  ;  those  made 
from  potash  are  soft.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  soft  soap  still  used  for 
domestic  purposes,  in  which  the  refuse  kitchen  fats  are  employed,  the 
lye  being  furnished  by  the  leaching  of  wood  ashes ;  the  grease  and 
lye  being  simply  boiled  together,  until  complete  saponification  takes 
place.  It  is  by  no  means  a  pure  soap,  but  it  is  very  useful  for  all 
the  coarser  uses  to  which  soap  is  applied,  such  as  scouring  wool  and 
yarn,  or  the  cleansing  of  any  article  in  which  there  is  a  large  amount 
of  oil  or  grease.  A  good  quality  of  hard  soap  is  prepared  by  adding 
slacked  lime  to  soda  ash,  the  combination  forming  carbonate  of  lime, 
and  leaving  a  solution  of  caustic  soda  or  lye.  The  fats  may  be  either 
animal  or  vegetable,  or  both,  but  they  must  be  clean  and  sweet.  If 
rosin  is  added,  it  is  simply  as  an  adulterant,  and  to  cheapen  the  pro- 
duction. After  the  soap  is  boiled  and  become  solid,  it  is  left  for  about 
a  week  to  cool  off,  when  it  is  cut  into  bars  with  wires. 

BOKAX  SOAP — Is  made  of  tallow  and  borax,  and  is  a"  hard, 
white  soapr  possessing  remarkable  cleansing  qualities. 

CASTILE  SOAP — Is  made  of  olive  and  rape-seed  oils.  There  are 
a  great  many  brands,  both  of  American  and  English  manufacture, 
professing  to  be  pure  Castile  soaps,  which  are  very  inferior  in  quality, 
in  making  Castile  soap,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  an  excess 


138  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

of  alkali  or  soda — only  just  enough  being  used  to  neutralize  the  oil. 
For  this  reason  the  soap  is  much  milder,  and  may  be  used  in  cleansing 
wounds  and  other  surfaces  where  a  common  soap  would  irritate  and 
cause  pain.  Its  mottled  appearance  is  caused  by  the  presence  of  a 
small  amount  of  copperas,  stirred  into  it  while  liquid,  which,  when 
exposed  to  the  air,  turns  red.  White  Castile  is  the  same  as  the 
other,  without  the  coloring  matter.  Though  called  Castile  soap,  it  is 
far  from  being  exclusively  made  in  Spain,  by  far  the  largest  propor- 
tion coming  from  the  south  of  France.  The  spurious  Castile  soap 
may  be  easily  detected  by  the  coloring  matter  being  in  streaks,  instead 
of  mottled,  as  in  the  genuine. 

CocOANUT-OiL  SOAP — Is  generally  known  as  Marine  soap,  and 
is  specially  designed  for  washing  in  sea  water,  as  it  is  not  readily  de- 
composed by  the  salt.  It  is  very  hard,  and,  from  its  peculiar  prop- 
erties, is  much  used  at  sea  and  in  seaport  towns. 

COLD  WATER  SOAPS — Are  specially  manufactured  for  domestic 
use,  where  there  are  not  the  usual  facilities  for  warm  water ;  and  for 
use  in  summer,  when  fires  are  comparatively  unnecessary. 

OLEINE  SOAP — Is  made  from  red  vegetable  oil,  one  of  the  best 
materials  used  in  soap  manufacture  ;  it  is  more  expensive  than  other 
brands,  but  is  undoubtedly  superior  to  others  in  general  use. 

SAND  SOAP — Is  manufactured  with  silver  sand,  or  some  of  the 
silicates,  in  addition  to  the  usual  ingredients. 

SAPOLIO — Is  an  article  similar  to  silica,  and  is  considered  by  the 
trade  the  best  of  its  class.  It  is  used  to  cleanse  metals  and  wood, 
marble,  etc. 

SILICATED  SOAP — Is  made  by  the  addition  of  sand  or  finely- 
powdered  pumice-stone  to  ordinary  hard  soap. 

SOFT  SOAP — Is  a  semi-fluid  compound,  consisting  of  potash  or 
alkaline  wood  ashes  boiled  with  fats  or  oils,  and  containing  the  gly- 
cerine and  a  large  proportion  of  water. 

TOILET  SOAPS — Are  made  from  very  pure  and  sweet  oils,  the 
saponification  being  conducted  without  the  aid  of  heat,  and  the  soap 
perfumed  by  the  addition  of  essential  oils. 

TRANSPARENT  SOAP — Is  made  by  dissolving  the  soap  in  alcohol 
and  solidifying  it  again  ;  shaving  soaps  are  included  in  this  class. 

YELLOW  SOAP — Differs  from  the  other  kinds,  by  having  rosin 
added  to  the  lye.  As  it  makes  an  excellent  lather,  it  is  an  ingredient 
in  most  laundry  soaps,  and  is  at  the  same  time  a  universal  vehicle  for 
all  adulterating  purposes. 

ADULTERATIONS  OF  SOAP. — One  of  the  chief  adulterations  is  the 


THE    GROCERS    COMPANION.  139 

increase  of  its  weight  with  water,  which  is  held  in  solution  by  the  in- 
troduction of  certain  chemicals,  or  by  the  addition  of  some  soluble 
and  insoluble  mineral  substances — such  as  hydrated  alumina,  silica, 
glue  and  other  gelatinous  matters.  Waterglass,  starch,  gypsum, 
clay,  bone  ash  and  barytes,  are  also  often  used.  Soap  is  readily 
soluble  in  alcohol,  and  the  solution  mixed  with  camphor  and  oil  of 
rosemary,  is  known  in  drug  stores  by  the  name  of  Opodeldoc. 

SOAP  POWDERS.— This  term  may  be  said  to  include  wash- 
ing powders,  and  every  article  used  to  take  the  place  of,  or  economise 
the  use  of,  soap.  They  all  have  the  same  base,  viz.,  carbonate  of 
soda,  lime,  ammonia  and  borax,  in  various  quantities,  the  relative 
proportions  being  in  fact  the  only  point  of  difference.  They  have  a 
number  of  fancy  names,  such  as  Pearline,  Lavine,  Soapine,  Sudseua, 
etc.,  but  they  are  all  manufactured  on  the  same  principle. 

SOAPSTONE. — This  substance  is  a  magnesian  mineral,  so 
called  from  its  soft,  greasy  feel,  and  under  the  name  of  Mineral pulp, 
is  ground  into  a  fine  powder  for  the  purpose  of  adulterating  flour  and 
butter,  in  order  to  add  to  its  weight. 

SODA — Is  a  mineral  alkali,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties 
— that  is,  having  the  same  elements  in  different  combinations — the 
three  principal  being  Caustic  soda,  Neutral  or  Sal  soda,  and  Carbon- 
ate of  soda  or  Cooking  soda.  It  is  largely  obtained  from  common 
salt  by  a  process  of  evaporation,  and  produces  each  of  the  three  va- 
rieties we  have  named.  Prior  to  the  discovery  of  this  process  of 
evaporation  by  M.  Leblanc,  it  was  entirely  derived  from  the  ashes 
of  burnt  seaweed  or  kelp.  The  caustic  soda  is  a  prominent  article  in 
the  manufacture  of  soap  ;  neutral  or  sal-soda  is  the  was/ting  soda 
of  commerce;  and  the  carbonate  of  soda,  known  as  cooking  soda,  is 
a  predominant  element  in  baking  powders,  bread  preparations,  and 
all  substitutes  for  yeast,  besides  being  used  as  a  summer  beverage,  in 
combination  with  certain  acids,  and  forming  an  important  item  in 
medicinal  preparations.  The  articles  sold  as  saleratus  and  soda,  are 
practically  the  same  thing.  Concentrated  lye  is  a  strong  solution  of 
caustic  soda  and  carbonate  of  soda. 

SORGHUM  SUGAR.— Sorghum  is  sometimes  called  the 
Chinese  Sugar-cane,  being  a  native  of  that  country,  and  occupying 
the  same  position  there  as  our  sugar-cane  does  in  the  West  Indies 
and  the  other  sugar-producing  districts.  It  was  introduced  into 
America  by  the  French  consul  at  Shanghai,  some  thirty  years  since, 
when  it  attracted  much  attention  ;  and  at  the  present  moment,  having 
become  perfectly  acclimated,  gives  promise  to  thoroughly  revolution- 
ize the  sugar  trade,  and  open  up  a  vast  field  for  profitable  industry, 
and  at  no  very  distant  period  to  utterly  annihilate  the  present  monop- 
oly in  that  important  article  of  commerce.  The  only  circumstance 


140  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

which  seems  to  complicate  the  question,  and  somewhat  arrest  pro- 
gress, is  the  great  production  of  glucose  from  corn,  but  even  this  ap- 
parent difficulty  will  doubtless  find  its  level.  Sorghum  sugar,  as  an 
article  for  cultivation  in  the  United  States,  possesses  many  points  of 
advantage,  one  of  the  chief  being  the  large  amount  of  good  and  pala- 
table syrup  to  be  drawn  from  it,  which  is  readily  obtained,  and  will 
soon  replace  molasses  in  the  domestic  economy.  The  cheapness  of 
its  culture,  the  easiness  with  which  it  is  grown,  and  the  uniform  ex- 
cellence of  its  produce,  place  it  upon  a  wholly  different  footing  to  the 
sugar  beet.  It  will  grow  on  almost  any  soil,  requires  but  little  labor, 
and  the  juice  is  free  from  any  disagreeable  flavor — three  features 
which  the  sugar  beet  cannot  claim  to  possess.  Professor  Collier,  of 
the  Agricultural  Department  at  Washington,  says  that  "there  is  no 
difficulty  in  making  from  sorghum  an  abundance  of  sugar  of  first-rate 
quality."  The  fact  has  been  conclusively  ascertained  from  the  agricul- 
tural authorities  and  other  experts,  that  the  average  yield  of  first-class 
sugar  from  the  sorghum  canes  will  amount  to  fully  two  tons  per  acre. 

SORREL. — A  well-known  perennial  plant,  cultivated  to  a  fair 
extent  in  the  United  States,  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  its  leaves,  which 
impart  an  agreeable  acid,  and  is  used  mostly  by  the  Germans  and 
French  in  soups  and  sauces.  It  takes  the  same  place  in  the  French 
markets  as  spinach  does  in  ours,  and  is  nearly  as  abundant.  It  is 
very  wholesome. 

SOUP. — There  are  a  great  many  descriptions  of  soup,  both 
meat  and  vegetable,  separate  and  combined,  carefully  packed  in  her- 
metically sealed  cans,  which  add  very  considerably  to  the  conven- 
ience of  the  housewife  and  cook,  as  they  can  be  made  ready  for  the 
table  in  a  very  few  minutes.  There  is  also  another  form  recently 
introduced  to  the  market,  still  more  compact,  viz.,  the  dry  soups  or 
packages  of  ingredients,  finely  chopped,  ready  for  use,  which  are 
very  convenient  and  available. 

SOY. — A  very  exquisite,  delicate  and  popular  sauce,  prepared 
from  a  bean  grown  in  China  and  Japan.  The  genuine  article,  being 
of  a  very  choice  nature,  there  are  of  course  many  very  inferior  and 
disgusting  counterfeits.  It  should  be  neither  too  sweet  nor  too  salt, 
and  though  syrupy  and  thick,  should  be  perfectly  clear.  If  genuine, 
the  bottle  or  glass  containing  it,  when  shaken,  should  be  enveloped 
in  a  bright  yellowish  film. 

SPECIALTIES.— This  term  embraces  everything  out  of  the 
ordinary  line  of  grocery  goods,  or  not  strictly  within  its  range. 
Every  enterprising  grocer,  who  desires  to  improve  the  character  and 
extend  his  trade,  should  take  hold  of  every  attractive  and  genuine 
novelty  he  can  see  ;  of  course  taking  special  care  that  the  specialties 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  141 

he  handles  are  really  good  for  something,  and  calculated  to  please  his 
patrons. 

SPECULATION.— There  are  two  kinds  of  speculation,  judi- 
cious and  reckless — the  latter  leading  directly  to  bankruptcy,  and  the 
former  to  certain  prosperity.  As  a  rule,  speculation,  in  the  ordinary 
sense  of  the  word,  is  an  evil  which  should  be  avoided  by  all  trades- 
men— whether  it  be  considered  on  account  of  its  riskiness  or  the 
amount  of  distraction  it  occasions,  by  diverting  the  mind  of  the  grocer 
from  his  regular  business  developments.  The  only  speculation  which 
would  be  warranted  by  common  sense,  is  limited  by  the  probalik'.  do- 
mands  of  his  business  in  the  immediate  future.  The  legitimate  exten- 
sion and  improvement  of  his  trade  will  or  should  engross  all  his  timcr 
energy  and  capital. 

SPERM-OIL. — Prepared  from  the  blubber  of  the  sperm-whale, 
and  used  not  only  for  illuminating  and  lubricating  purposes,  but  as 
an  insect  exterminator,  as,  when  mixed  with  a  little  water  and 
sprinkled  over  rose  bushes,  it  Avill  exterminate  the  bugs  which  infest 
them. 

SPERMACETI. — A  solid,  oily  substance,  of  a  white  color  and 
waxy  consistence,  found  in  a  cavity  in  the  head  of  the  whale,  and 
obtained  from  the  oil  and  brains  of  the  spermaceti  whale,  which  is 
usually  found  in  the  Southern  Ocean.  It  comes  to  market  in  nearly 
transparent  flakes,  is  dry  and  crumbling,  though  soft ;  has  the  taste 
of  butter  and  a  tallowy  odor,  and  is  largely  used  in  making  candles* 
for  medicinal  purposes  in  general,  and  also  in  the  laundry,  to  impart 
a  gloss  to  the  surface  of  the  articles  washed. 

SPICES. — Spices  are  vegetable  productions,  distinguished  by 
their  extremely  pungent  and  aromatic  qualities.  They  are"  almost 
endless  in  their  variety  of  form  and  flavor,  are  indispensable  in  cook- 
ery and  confectionery,  and  are  almost  entirely  the  product  of  tropical 
climates.  Their  special  commercial  value  is  in  the  amount  of  aroma 
and  pungency  contained  in  their  essential  oils.  Various  sections  of 
the  plants  are  manufactured  into  spice — the  peppers,  pimento,  mace, 
nutmeg  and  vanilla,  being  derived  from  the  fruit ;  cinnamon  and  cas- 
sia from  the  bark,  and  such  as  ginger  from  the  root.  A  large  num- 
ber of  spices  arc  natives  of  South  America,  but  the  majority  arc 
natives  of  the  East  Indies.  Spices  are  of  special  value  in  the  manu- 
facture of  sauces,  soups,  salads,  confectionery,  and  numerous  culinary 
and  manufacturing  operations,  and  form  an  important  and  not  unprof- 
itable item  in  the  grocer's  catalogue.  The  various  spices  are  de- 
scribed under  their  appropriate  heads  [which  see]. 

SPINACH. — A  garden  vegetable,  originally  imported  from 
Kurope,  but  now  universally  cultivated  in  this  country  as  a  favorite 
article  of  domestic  consumption.  It  is  easy  of  culture,  and  is  in  sea- 


142  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

son  the  year  round.  For  spring  use  it  is  sown  in  the  fall,  and  pro- 
tected from  frost  during  the  winter.  It  is  of  the  same  character  as 
dandelion.  The  varieties  used  are  the  round,  prickly  and  New  Zea- 
land species. 

SPRATS. — A  small  fish  of  the  herring  family,  and  used 
.smoked,  dried  and  fresh.  They  are  frequently  packed  and  sold  as 
sardines,  differing  but  slightly  from  that  fish  in  size  and  flavor. 

SQUASH. — A  species  of  vegetable  partaking  of  the  character 
of  the  pumpkin  and  the  gourd,  but  much  more  delicate  in  flavor  than 
the  former,  and  of  great  importance  as  an  article  of  food.  It  is  used 
both  as  a  vegetable  and  as  a  fruit,  and  may  be  looked  upon  as  a 
standard  New  England  dish.  They  vary  greatly  in  size,  form,  color 
and  quality,  are  rapid  growers,  and  are  raised  with  little  trouble. 
They  form  a  prominent  article  in  our  markets,  both  winter  and  sum- 
mer, the  winter  squash  having  special  excellencies.  Whether  stewed 
or  baked,  in  pies  and  tarts,  or  otherwise  cooked,  the  demand  for  them 
is  large  and  quite  equal  to  the  supply.  The  best  of  the  summer  va- 
rieties in  cultivation  are  the  Yellow  and  White  Bush  Scalloped,  Sum- 
mer Crookneck  and  Boston  Marrow ;  the  favorite  winter  selections 
being  the  Hubbard  and  Marblehead. 

STARCH. — This  substance  forms  a  large  part  of  our  cereals 
and  vegetables — wheat,  rice,  corn,  peas  and  beans,  sago,  horse-chest- 
nuts and  potatoes — consisting  of  quantities  ranging  from  twenty  to 
sixty  per  cent.  In  the  starch  of  commerce  there  are  only  two  known 
descriptions — those  used  for  food  and  those  employed  for  manufactur- 
ing and  laundry  purposes.  The  starch  in  our  markets  is  largely 
manufactured  from  the  potato. 

The  Corn-starch,  which  enters  so  largely  into  the  food  for  in- 
valids and  infants,  and  various  articles  of  confectionery  and  the  do- 
mestic pantry,  is  prepared  from  Indian  corn — two  large  factories  alone 
furnishing  more  than  40,000,000  pounds  of  starch  annually,  and  con- 
suming in  its  production  upwards  of  2,000,000  bushels  of  corn  Its 
manufacture,  as  now  conducted  by  the  new  chemical  process,  is  so  su- 
perior in  quality  and  flavor  as  not  only  to  have  superseded  and  driven 
out  the  foreign  brands,  which  formerly  found  a  ready  sale  in  the 
United  States,  but  it  has  created  for  itself  a  large  export  demand  to 
Europe  and  other  parts  of  the  world,  which  is  rapidly  and  constantly 
increasing.  The  new  process  of  which  we  speak,  entirely  obviates 
the  process  of  souring  the  grain,  formerly  resorted  to,  the  gluten  being 
separated  from  the  corn  by  the  action  of  acids  and  alkalies.  The 
food-starches,  of  which  maize,  the  sago-palm  and  manioc  forms  the 
basis,  are  the  arrow-root  and  corn-starch,  and  consequently  far  less 
acid  than  the  laundry  and  manufacturing  article,  which  is  made  from 


THE    GROCERS    COMPANION.  148 

rice,  wheat  and  potatoes.  The  potato  or  sprout  starch,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  from  a  special  process  in  its  manufacture,  is  inferior  in  char- 
acter, and  mainly  used  by  calico  manufacturers  and  others  in  the 
"  dressing"  of  textile  fabrics.  Wheat  starch  is  made  in  three  grades 
— the  first,  or  finest,  being  used  for  laundry  starch ;  the  second  (a 
standard  grade)  adapted  to  the  finer  kinds  of  manufacturing  work ; 
and  the  third,  or  common,  only  used  for  the  coarser  and  subordinate 
operations  already  referred  to. 

Starch  making  from  potatoes  is  the  great  manufacturing  industry 
of  Aroostook  county,  Maine.  It  originated  in  1874.  The  ma- 
chinery for  making  starch  from  potatoes  is  very  simple,  requiring  but 
little  mechanical  skill  in  its  construction.  It  is  a  hopper,  into  which 
the  potatoes  are  emptied  by  the  bushel  basketfull,  from  whence  they 
pass  through  a  cylinder  about  three  feet  long,  where  the  potatoes  are 
rattled  about  without  ceremony  among  the  frame  work  and  arms  in- 
side, until  they  are  washed  perfectly  clear  of  all  dirt,  water  in  abund- 
ance being  constantly  poured  upon  them  by  pipes  from  above.  From 
thence  the  potatoes  pass  down  upon  a  grater,  two  feet  in  diameter, 
made  of  staves  four  inches  thick,  three  feet  six  inches  long,  with 
heavy  cast-iron  heads.  The  cylinder  is  covered  with  sheet  iron,  per- 
forated with  holes  from  within,  so  that  the  grater  is  perfectly  fit  for 
the  work  it  has  to  do.  In  less  than  a  minute  a  bushel  of  potatoes  is 
worn  up  by  the  rapidly  revolving  grater,  and  reduced  to  the  finest 
pulp.  From  thence  the  pulp  goes  on  to  a  metallic  sieve,  which  has  a 
rapid  oscillatory  motion,  with  a  stream  of  water  pouring  upon  it  the 
whole  time,  washing  the  starch  from  the  pulp  while  the  other  con- 
stituents of  the  potato  pass  off  the  end  of  the  sieve  into  the  stream 
below.  The  water  which  pours  through  the  sieve,  and  in  which  is 
held  the  starch,  runs  off  into  large  vats  in  a  mill,  twenty  feet  square 
and  six  feet  deep.  When  -these  vats  are  full,  the  water  is  drained  off 
and  the  starch  remains  at  the  bottom,  some  four  inches  deep.  The 
starch  is  then  shoveled  over  into  two  smaller  vats,  clean  water  pumped 
in,  filling  them  full,  the  whole  stirred  up  by  machinery,  and,  when 
the  starch  is  completely  mixed  in  water,  it  is  left  again  to  settle. 
After  it  is  settled,  the  water  is  again  drained  off,  and  the  starch  re- 
mains perfectly  pure  and  clean.  It  is  then  shoveled  up,  taken  on 
wheelbarrows  over  a  long  passageway  to  the  attic  of  the  dry-house, 
where  it  is  spread  over  a  large  platform,  made  of  slats  with  openings 
an  inch  wide  between  them,  so  that  the  heat  from  the  furnace  below 
comes  in  contact  with  the  starch.  As  it  dries  and  crumbles,  it  falls 
through  upon  other  platforms  below,  and  so  through  a  succession  of 
similar  platforms  until,  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours,  it  comes 
out  twenty  feet  below,  perfectly  dry  and  ready  for  barreling.  When 
tke  starch  is  ready,  it  is  put  up  into  casks,  holding  some  over  five 
hundred  pounds  each,  and  is  ready  for  shipment.  In  barreling  it, 
one  man  gets  into  the  cask  and  treads  it  down,  while  another  shovels 


144  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

the  starch  in.  A  cooper  stands  by  to  put  in  the  head,  make  it  secure 
and  drive  the  hoops.  In  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  after 
the  potatoes  are/dumped  into  the  cellar,  the  starch  is  ready  for  ship- 
ment. The  annual  length  of  the  season  for  starch  making  is  about 
ten  weeks,  that  is  from  the  1st  of  September  to  the  middle  of  No- 
vember. 

STARCH  POLISH.— A  comparatively  new  article,  which 
has  been  brought  into  demand  by  the  refinements  and  improved 
taste  engendered  by  civilization.  It  is  specially  intended  to  give 
a  glossy  finish  to  starched  goods,  and  is  usually  riade  from  the  fol- 
lowing ingredients  : — Starch,  White  Castile  Soap,  Paraffine,  Borax 
aud  White  Wax.  Another  variety  is  made  from  spermaceti,  white 
wax,  castor  oil,  mutton  tallow,  borax,  salt,  gum  arabic  and  isin- 
glass. Either  of  these  articles  impart  a  high  finish  to  the  goods, 
and  to  a  certain  extent,  preserve  the  fabrics  on  which  they  are 
used. 

STOVE  POLISH.— A  preparation,  the  groundwork  of  which 
is  or  should  be,  either  graphite  or  black  lead  ;  but  unhappily  it  is  so 
enormously  adulterated  in  all  its  stages  of  preparation  that  the 
grocer  can  place  but  little  reliance  on  its  genuineness,  with  a  very 
few  exceptions.  It  is  sold  in  powder,  rolls  and  sticks,  and  is  used 
for  polishing  iron-work  generally. 

STRAWBERRIES.— One  of  the  most  delicate  and  lueious 
fruits  of  which  the  United  States  can  boast.  It  is  a  native  of  North 
America,  and  grows  wild  in  several  of  the  States  ;  but  the  cultivated 
article  is  so  greatly  improved,  and  the  demand  for  it  so  great,  that 
a  large  number  of  new  varieties  are  constantly  being  introduced 
from  the  seed.  As  an  article  of  food,  it  is  very  wholesome,  the 
best  known  varieties  being  "Wilson's  Albany,"  the  "Monarch  of 
the  West,"  the  "Agriculturist,"  and  "  Hovey's  Seedling."  The 
eastern  markets  are  chiefly  supplied  from  New  Jersey  and  Dela- 
ware, while  the  western  markets  rely  for  their  supplies  on  Illinois 
and  the  Lake  shore.  Large  quantities  are  annually  canned  and  re- 
shipped  from  California,  and  sent  to  every  known  locality  on  this 
continent  and  in  Europe. 

SUCCOTASH. — This  is  an  old  friend  under  a  new  name,  and 
finds  great  favor  in  the  Southern  and  Western  States,  and  is  rapidly 
gaining  ground  in  the  Northern  and  Eastern  sections  of  the  Union. 
The  dish  from  which  it  obtained  its  name  (borrowed  from  the  native 
Indians)  differs  considerably  from  the  modern  preparation,  and  is 
made  on  the  following  plan : — A  number  of  ears  of  young  green 
sweet  corn,  shaved  from  the  cob,  shucked  and  silked,  and  the  inside 
of  the  kernels  taken  out,  are  placed  in  a  kettle  with  a  small  quantity 
of  water,  and  allowed  to  boil  for  a  little  over  a  quarter  of  an  hour  ; 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  145 

they  are  kept  well-stirred ;  salt,  pepper,  butter  and  sweet  cream 
(about  half  a  tea-cupfull)  added,  and  they  are  then  prepared  for  the 
table. 

SUGAR. — The  cultivation  of  the  several  descriptions  of  Sugar 
in  the  tropical  and  semi-tropical  sections  of  the  world,  and  its  influ- 
ence not  only  on  the  vast  industry  which  has  arisen  in  the  United 
States  during  the  last  century,  but  on  the  future  interests  of  that 
commerce  of  Avhich  it  forms  so  large  a  portion,  is  a  problem  of  vital 
and  urgent  importance  to  every  citizen  and  merchant  in  the  civilized 
world,  and  one  which  demands  our  immediate  and  serious  attention. 
The  fact  that  it  is  an  indispensable  necessary  of  existence  in  every 
community,  and  that  sugar  more  than  any  other  commodity  has 
been  made  a  subject  of  speculation,  manipulation  and  even  gambling 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  jeopardise  the  commercial  standing  and  safety 
of  both  grower  and  merchant,  and  that  every  department  of  the 
sugar  interest  is  more  or  less  paralysed,  until  a  fundamental  change 
is  made — these  fact.s  fully  justify  us  in  asserting  that  a  speedy  and 
utter  revolution  must  be  made  at  once,  and  the  personal  interest  of 
all  parties  interested  in  its  cultivation  must  be  permanently  secured, 
if  we  desire  to  avert  the  annihilation  which  so  imminently  threatens 
to  overwhelm  grower,  shipper  and  grocer  in  one  irremediable  wreck. 
Sugar,  like  starch,  is  to  be  found  in  almost  every  animal  that 
breathes,  and  every  plant  that  grows,  in  greater  or  less  proportion. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  neither  the  beet,  the 
maple,  nor  the  sorghum  were  considered  as  probable  or  even  possible, 
adjuncts  to  our  sugar  supplies.  Our  communities  increased  in  num- 
bers, and  the  demand  for  a  better  supply,  both  as  to  quality  and. 
quantity,  increased  in  the  same  proportion,  but  this  only  opened  the 
door  to  wholesale  adulteration,  and  the  introduction  of  worthless  sub- 
stitutes for  genuine  sugar.  And  even  in  this  matter,  the  worst  and 
most  inveterate  enemies  to  the  restoration  of  the  sugar  trade  to  its  le- 
gitimate and  natural  condition  were  the  grocers  themselves — in  making 
a  "decoy"  of  the  article,  and  selling  it  at  or  below  cost,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  coaxing  or  increasing  trade — thus  giving  substantial  encour- 
agement to  the  professional  adulterator,  and  ruining  the  honest  retailer 
who  persisted  in  his  efforts  to  do  a  legitimate  trade  at  fairly  remuner- 
ative prices.  The  experience  of  the  past  two  years  in  the  "Grocers' 
Associations,"  and  the  encouraging  success  of  their  efforts  to  put 
down  the  fraudulent  practice  of  selling  "sugar  at  cost,"  has  shown 
them  what  can  be  done  by  united  and  earnest  effort.  We  are  per- 
suaded that  the  great  and  only  lever  which  will  restore  the  "  sugar 
trade  "  to  its  proper  position,  and  enlarge  the  area  of  commercial 
profit  by  adding  the  "  sorghum  "  to  our  other  sources  of  supply,  will 
be  the  "  Retail  Grocers'  Associations,"  in  enforcing  their  avowed 
policy  of  acting  honestly  and  fairly  in  all  things. 


146  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

The  sugars  of  commerce  consist  only  of  two  kinds — the  "  Su- 
crose," which  includes  the  ordinary  "  cane  suyar,"  and  that  made 
from  the  beet,  the  maple  and  the  palm.  The  second  is  called  "Dex- 
trose "  or  glucose,  and  variously  known  as  grape  sugar,  starch  sugar 
juid  fruit  sugar,  and  made  from  almost  everything  having  starch  or 
woody  fibre,  acted  upon  by  strong  sulphuric  or  muriatic  acid.  It  is 
chiefly  manufactured  from  potatoes  and  corn,  roots,  wood,  paper  and 
even  rags  being  added,  and  is  largely  used  as  a  substitute  for  sugar 
in  syrups,  confectionery,  and  home-made  or  fruit  wiues.  There  are 
at  least  sixty  establishments  in  Germany,  whose  sole  business  is  the 
manufacture  of  sugar  from  the  potato  and  similar  vegetables,  the 
annual  produce  of  which  is  nearly  80,000,000  pounds  of  sugar  and 
syrup. 

The  cane  sugars  grow  luxuriantly  in  Louisiana,  West  Indies, 
Central  America,  along  the  entire  coast  of  northern  South  America, 
the  Brazils,  throughout  large  portions  of  Asia,  the  East  Indies,  and 
large  portions  of  the  Chinese  and  Tartar  territories.  The  raw  sugar, 
after  the  molasses  is  extracted,  is  not  sent  as  it  used  to  be  some  years 
since,  direct  into  the  market  as  Muscovado,  clayed  sugar,  etc.,  but  is 
transferred  to  the  great  sugar  refineries,  from  whence  it  issues  in  the 
shape  of  "  Powdered,"  "  Granulated,"  "  Standard  A,"  "  Extra  C," 
"  Extra  Yellow  C,"  "Cube,"  "Cut  Loaf,"  "Crushed,"  and  "Pul- 
verized "  (frosting)  sugars. 

For  the  production  of  4  'A"  sugar,  the  loaves,  while  still  quite 
moist,  are  placed  on  a  cutting-machine  and  shaved  fine.  The  shaved 
sugar  is  then  carefully  dried,  and  the  powdered  portions  sifted  away, 
the  remainder,  being  sold  as  granulated  sugar.  At  other  times  the 
loaves  are  dried  in  hot-air  chamber*,  broken  in  a  crushing-machine, 
the  product  separated  by  sifting,  and  respectively  sold  as  powdered 
and  crushed  sugar.  The  dried  loaves  are  also  sometimes  cut  into 
cubes  and  sold  as  cube  sityar.  The  mother  liquor,  after  being  drained 
and  set  in  moulds,  is  converted  into  a  sugar  of  light  buff  color,  and 
known  as  "C"  sugar.  The  residue  of  the  mother  liquor,  known  as 
"  green  syrup,"  having  been  collected  from  the  various  vacuum  pans, 
is  transferred  to  the  centrifugal  machine,  and  its  operation  results  in 
the  production  of  a  dark  sugar,  called  "  X  "  or  yellow  sugar.  The 
balance  of  the  syrup  is  again  diluted,  filtered  and  concentrated,  when 
it  is  sold  as  "  golden  syrup." 

Loaf  "A,"  and  other  white  sugars  when  dry,  are  pure  cane 
sugars,  divested  of  all  foreign  elements  ;  "  C  "  sugar  contains  about 
ninety  per  cent,  and  yellow  sugar  a  little  over  eighty  per  cent.  The 
sugars  and  syrups  manufactured  in  the  northern  United  States,  are, 
us  a  rule,  obtained  from  the  "  sorghum"  sugar  cane.  Maple  sugar 
and  syrup  never  enters  the  refinery,  for  the  reason  that  the  peculiarly 
delicate  and  pleasant  flavor  it  possesses  would  be  entirely  destroyed 
by  the  refining  process. 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  14T 

More  than  one-third  of  the  sugar  manufactured  in  every  country 
is  made  from  the  sugar  beet,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties  cul- 
tivated— the  European  nations  (England  excepted)  depending  almost 
entirely  on  that  source  for  their  supply.  The  manufacture  of  beet 
sugar  has  been  in  existence  for  about  three-fourths  of  a  century. 
Good  beets  contain  about  ninety-six  per  cent,  of  juice,  twelve  per 
<*ent.  of  which  is  cane  sugar.  In  the  East,  large  quantities  of  sugar 
*ire  made  from  various  species  of  the  palm-tree,  made  in  a  similar 
manner  to  the  maple,  that  is  by  tapping.  It  is  of  a  dark  color,  but 
agreeable  taste,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of  Jaggery.  The  impor- 
tations of  foreign  sugar  into  the  United  States  are  nearly  all  raw,  and 
amount  annually  to  about  1,000,000  tons;  the  exports  of  refined 
sugar  reaching  30,000  tons  ;  and  the  consumption  to  nearly  1,000,000 
tons,  or  about  forty-seven  pounds  per  head. 

SUGAR-HOUSE  SYRUP. — This  precious  compound  is  vulgarly 
termed  "  black-strap,"  the  produce  of  the  process  of  boiling  out  the 
residue  of  the  crystallizable  sugar  from  molasses.  It  is  a  thick,  dark 
mass. 

SULPHUR. — A  substance  produced  extensively  in  Sicily,  Ice- 
land and  California — the  latter  place  furnishing  all  the  supplies  of 
that  article  necessary  to  manufacture  the  "  Oil  of  Vitriol,"  which  is 
one  of  its  staple  products.  Its  chief  use,  under  the  name  of  "  Brim- 
stone" of  commerce,  is  in  the  manufacture  of  matches.  In  its  re- 
fined form  as  "  Sulphur,"  it  is  employed  to  a  great  extent  in  medi- 
cine, as  a  liquid  for  the  destruction  of  insects,  in  bleaching  processes, 
and  in  the  production  of  sulphuric  acid  and  gunpowder.  It  is  also 
sold  in  the  powdered  form  by  chemists,  as  "Flowers  of  Sulphur,'' 
and  used  as  a  remedy  for  cutaneous  diseases,  both  in  men  and 
animals. 

SWELLS. — In  our  article  on  "Canned  Goods"  we  have  re- 
ferred to  the  frequent  occurrence  of  "Swells,"  and  its  probable  cause. 
It  requires  constant  vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  packer  to  prevent 
the  disastrous  results  which  inevitably  follow,  viz.,  the  decom- 
position of  the  contents  from  fermentation.  The  fermentation 
may  be  either  alcoholic,  or  acetous,  and  produces  carbonic  acid  gas 
and  alcohol,  which,  acting  upon  the  contents  by  producing  putre- 
faction, and  upon  the  metal  can  by  creating  a  virulent  poison.  The 
only  advice  which  can  be  given  to  the  packer  is,  that  he  make  sure 
that  his  cans  do  not  leak. 

SYRUP. — As  observed  in  our  description  of  Sugar,  this  is 
the  liquid  drawn  off  from  the  refined  sugar,  and  is  brought  to  the 
condition  in  which  it  is  sold  by  a  filtering  process  through  charcoal — 
its  light  or  dark  color  depending  entirely  on  the  amount  of  impurity 
it  contains.  The  substance  known  as  Treacle  is  derived  exclusively 


148  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

from  can  sugar,  and  the  "  Syrup"  of  the  store  should  be  only  a  puri- 
fied form  of  treacle.  But  this  is  the  case  with  a  very  small  portion 
of  that  in  the  market,  as  that  is  generally  a  starch  syrup  containing 
lime,  sulphate  of  iron  and  pure  sulphuric  acid — the  result  or  residue 
of  the  process  used  in  making  glucose.  An  analysis  recently  made 
of  a  score  of  syrups,  obtained  from  as  many  different  establishments, 
resulted  in  the  following  finding: — Only  two  specimens  were  made 
of  pure,  cane  sugar,  the  remaining  number  were  more  or  less  sophis- 
ticated with  deleterious  and  even  poisonous  ingredients,  in  greater  or 
less  quantity. 

TALLOW. — A  substance  manufactured  from  the  melted  fat 
of  various  animals,  but  chiefly  beef  fat.  It  is  produced  in  all 
countries  where  animal  food  is  consumed,  and  its  quality  and  con- 
dition, which  is  very  variable,  depend  entirely  on  the  care  taken  in 
the  rendering,  the  state  of  the  material  when  made  into  tallow,  and 
the  precautions  taken  to  protect  it  from  the  action  of  the  air  in  the 
course  of  transit.  Its  principal  use  is  in  the  manufacture  of  candles 
and  soaps  and  for  softening  leather. 

TAMARINDS. — The  tree  bearing  this  fruit  is  cultivated  in 
all  warm  climates.  The  fruit,  as  it  reaches  us,  including  both  the 
juice  and  the  pulp,  is  imported  in  kegs  containing  fifty  pounds 
weight — the  repacking  into  jars  being  done  here.  It  makes  a  very 
pleasant  and  useful  beverage ;  the  effect  being  slightly  aperient,  it 
may  be  drank  in  warm  or  cold  water ;  it  also  makes  a  delicious  pre- 
serve. It  has  recently  been  offered  in  various  attractive  forms  as  a 
medicine,  and  as  a  suitable  vehicle  for  taking  numerous  draughts. 

TANKS  FOR  OIL. — Cleanliness,  economy,  convenience  and 
preservation  of  stock  should  be  the  first  care  of  the  storekeeper,  and 
in  no  possible  way  can  he  so  effectually  secure  these  desirable  ends 
as  by  the  use  of  the  cheap  and  durable  oil  tanks  which  are  now 
placed  at  the  service  of  the  trade  in  all  our  cities.  They  are  so  in- 
geniously contrived  that  there  is  no  possible  waste  or  dirt,  and  a 
large  amount  of  space  and  waste  of  time  is  avoided. 

TAPIOCA. — This  useful  and  necessary  article  of  food  is  man- 
ufactured from  the  prepared  roots  of  the  maudive  plant,  which  is 
subjected  to  a  process  of  cleansing  and  pressure  by  which  the  juices 
(a  deadly  poison)  is  thoroughly  expelled,  leaving  behind  only  the 
dried  fibres  of  the  root,  which  is  then  wholesome  and  nutrious,  and 
from  its  peculiar  properties  cannot  easily  be  adulterated  or  mixed 
with  interior  substances.  It  is  the  most  wholesome,  easily  digested 
and  nutritious  of  all  the  food-roots  presented  to  our  notice,  and  uni- 
versally employed  in  making  puddings  and  other  household  dishee. 
The  mandioc  plant,  from  which  tapioca  is  made,  grows  in  the  West 


THE    GROCERS    COMPANION.  U9 

Indies,  South  America  and  Africa.  There  are  three  species.  The 
first  is  the  bitter  cassava,  indigenous  to  Brazil ;  it  has  a  large,  tuber- 
ous root,  which  sometimes  weighs  thirty  pounds.  This  root  contains 
a  large  proportion  of  starch,  which  is  associated  with  a  poisonous, 
milky  juice.  The  other  two  species  do  not  contain  the  poisonous 
juice.  All  are  used  alike  in  the  preparation  of  tapioca.  The  root  is 
well  washed,  then  scraped  or  grated  to  a  pulp,  and  this  when  of  the 
poisonous  kind,  is  thoroughly  pressed  in  order  to  remove  the  juice ; 
well  washed  with  cold  water  and  afterward  dried,  this  is  the  tapioca 
of  commerce,  sometimes  called  Brazilian  arrow-root. 

TARE. — This  is  a  term  used  to  designate  the  deduction  always 
made  by  the  merchant  to  the  retailer  from  the  gross  weight  of  the 
goods,  to  compensate  for  the  weight  of  the  package,  and  other  losses 
liable  to  occur  during  transit.  There  are  three  kinds  of  tare,  viz  : 
Actual,  Estimated  and  Average.  The  actual  tare  is  when  each  package 
is  weighed  on  its  own  merits  and  the  proportionate  deduction  made. 
The  average  tare  is  taken  by  weighing  a  few  of  the  packages  and 
deducting  a  given  average  amount  for  each.  The  estimated  tare  is 
when  the  weighing  is  dispensed  with  and  a  certain  amount  deducted 
for  the  supposed  weight  of  the  package. 

TARTARIC  ACID. — This  chemical  agent  is  the  crude  pro- 
duct of  the  encrustation  found  inside  of  wine  casks — the  Cream  of 
Tartar  [which  see]  being  a  prepared  product  of  the  argol  or  tartar, 
of  which  the  before-mentioned  crust  consists.  The  tartar  is  dissolved 
in  hot  water  until  the  efferescence  ceases  and  the  acid  only  remains. 
Its  chief  use  is  in  dyeing,  but  it  forms  a  part  in  the  manufacture  of 
all  the  baking  powders  [which  see] — and,  when  comb'ined  with  bicar- 
bonate of  soda,  is  a  refreshing  and  effervescing  summer  beverage. 

TEA. — More  than  a  century  before  the  celebrated  "  Boston 
Tea  Party"  assembled  on  the  shores  of  the  Charles  River  the  tea 
plant  flourished,  and  its  fragrant,  aromatic  leaves  were  looked  upon 
as  a  priceless  treasure,  and  a  luxury  only  to  be  enjoyed  by  the  most 
wealthy  of  the  land.  So  early  as  the  year  1057,  it  was  scarcely 
known,  except  to  its  originators  the  Chinese ;  and  prior  to  that 
period  we  look  in  vain  for  any  record  of  its  introduction  or  its  use. 
Even  in  Europe,  where  its  existence  was  first  made  known,  it  was 
not  heard  of  until  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  ;  but*  since 
that  period,  tea  has  caused  more  excitement  and  heart-burnings  in 
one  way  or  the  other,  than  any  other  article  holding  a  place  in  the 
long  list  of  American  or  English  importations.  Notwithstanding  the 
various  long-named  descriptions  of  tea — both  black  and  green — 
which  invite  the  attention  of  the  consumer,  there  is  but  one  species 
of  the  tea  tree — the  only  difference  in  quality  or  flavor  being  ascri- 
bable  to  a  slight  variation  in  the  soil,  climate  or  growth,  in  the  age 


150  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

of  the  picking  (whether  old  or  young  leaves),  and  in  the  preparation 
for  consumption.  The  distinction  between  black  and  green  color  of 
the  teas  are  not  due  to  being  taken  from  different  varieties,  but  to 
the  method  in  which  the  leaves  are  treated. 

The  tea  plant  is  very  prolific,  there  being  as  many  as  four  har- 
vests in  the  year.  The  first  picking  of  the  young  plant  occurs  in 
April,  the  buddings  being  very  choice  in  character,  and  realize  very 
high  prices,  but  the  produce  is  never  imported  to  this  country  ;  it  is 
specially  retained  for  the  use  of  the  chief  mandarins  and  millionaires 
of  the  Chinese  empire,  a  small  quantity  being  also  sent  overland  to 
Russia.  The  second  picking  commences  in  May,  from  which  the 
finest  selections  sold  in  the  United  States  and  European  markets  are 
obtained.  The  leaf  is  very  carefully  picked  by  skilled  experts,  who 
pick  about  ten  pounds  per  day  each — each  leaf  being  picked  sepa- 
rately and  very  delicately  handled,  as  they  are  extremely  susceptible 
of  injury — and  subsequently  these  leaves,  notwithstanding  the  care 
exercised,  are  subjected  to  a  second  sorting,  the  bruised  or  damaged 
leaves  being  all  rejected,  or  transferred  to  an  inferior  class.  This 
second  picking  is  known  as  "  first-crop  tea,"  and  includes  the  de- 
scriptions bearing  the  names  of  the  finest  Young  Hyson,  Gunpowder, 
Congou, Souchong  and  Oolongs.  At  a  later  period.  June  or  July, 
the  third  crop  is  gathered,  of  which  the  more  matured  leaves  form 
the  greater  portion,  and  the  vigilant  selection  as  to  bruised  or  defec- 
tive leaves  is  not  maintained,  consequently  they  contain  much  more* 
tannin,  are  of  a  more  astringent  and  harsher  character,  and  the  infu- 
sion has  a  less  delicate  aroma,  and  much  more  bitter.  As  the  weeks 
and  months  go  on,  after  June  or  July,  various  small  gatherings  arc 
made,  but  each  successive  picking  is  inferior  both  in  taste  and  quality, 
and  the  preparation  is  neither  so  carefully  conducted,  nor  accurately 
carried  out  as  in  the  second  and  third  crops. 

The  special  processes  to  which  the  leaves  are  subjected,  in  order 
to  obtain  the  black  and  green  varieties,  are  fully  explained  in  John- 
ston's "  Chemistry  of  Life,"  some  of  the  facts  related  we  hereby 
briefly  subjoin  : — In  the  process  of  drying,  the  leaves  are  roasted 
and  scorched  in  such  a  manner  as  to  necessarily  effect  many  chemical 
changes  in  them,  resulting  in  the  variations  of  flavor,  odor  and  taste,  by 
which  the  several  varieties  of  tea  in  the  market  are  distinguished.  The 
distinction  between  the  Mack  and  r/rcen  varieties  are  due  solely  to  the 
mode  in  which  the  leaves  are  treated,  the  black  undergoing  a  sort  of 
fermentation  before  drying  ;  while  the  green  arc  submitted,  immedi- 
ately after  gathering,  to  a  high  temperature  in  iron  pans.  The  man- 
ufacture of  black  tea  closely  resembles  haymaking.  The  leaves  tiro 
placed  in  heaps  and  allowed  to  ferment  for  a  given  time,  which  im- 
parts to  them  a  dark  color,  and  they  become  flaccid.  They  then  un- 
dergo the  manipulation  of  the  twisters,  who  either  twirl  them  between 
the  thumb  and  forefinger,  or  rub  and  roll  them  with  the  hands  on  a 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  151 

table  of  split  bamboo,  until  the  operation  is  completed.  The  leaves 
are  then  taken  to  the  drying-room,  and  heated  for  sonic  minutes  iu 
an  iron  pan  ;  after  which  the  twisting  operation  is  repeated  ;  and 
they  are  subsequently  put  in  wicker  cylinders  and  dried  on  a  slow- 
fire — the  .process  being  repeated  several  times  until  they  are  black  and 
crisp.  In  the  manufacture  of  green  teas  the  leaves  are  placed,  im- 
mediately after  picking,  into  firing  pans,  over  charcoal  fires  ;  and 
after  a  short  ti.ne  are  removed  and  subjected  to  the  operation  of  the 
rollers,  Avho  roll  them  in  the  different  forms  in  which  they  appear  on 
the  market.  They  are  again  put  on  the  fire  for  drying,  and  the  op- 
eration is  repeated  until  they  become  dry  and  crisp,  when  they  are 
stowed  away,  either  for  home  use  or  for  the  market.  The  greea 
teas  of  commerce  are  artificially  colored  by  turmeric  powder  and  a 
mixture  of  gypsum  and  Prussian  blue,  or  of  gypsum  and  indigo. 
Some  of  the  teas  are  flavored  or  scented,  by  placing  among  the  leaves 
uuring  the  several  stages  of  preparation,  the  aromatic  flowers  of  cer- 
tain plants. 

Among  the  tea-producing  countries,  China  comes  first  in  rank, 
Japan  second,  and  India  (which  promises  to  outvie  each  of  its  orien- 
tal neighbors,  although  the  culture  of  tea  did  not  commence  until 
18oG)  is  third.  Then  come  .Java,  the  island  of  Ceylon  and  Brazil, 
in  the  order  named.  California  could  well,  and  possibly  may,  be- 
come a  prolific  tea-producing  State,  if  it  can  only  overcome  the  diffi- 
cult question  of  labor. 

Tea  is  certainly  the  foremost  of  all  beverages,  in  reference  to  its 
invigorating  and  restorative  qualities.  It  has  a  remarkable  influence 
iu  diminishing  the  daily  waste  or  disintegration  of  the  human  tissue  ; 
therefore,  if  the  waste  is  lessened  in  any  degree,  the  necessity  for  food 
to  repair  the  waste  will  be  proportionately  diminished, — in  other 
words,  by  the  consumption  of  a  certain  quantity  of  tea,  the  health 
and  strength  of  the  body  will  be  maintained  in  an  equal  degree  upou 
a  smaller  quantity  of  food.  Tea,  therefore,  saves  food — stands  to  a 
large  extent  iu  its  place — while  at  the  same  time  it  soothes  the  body 
and  enlivens  the  mind. 

GREEN  TEAS. — Some  time  since  the  English  government  passed 
a  law  prohibiting  the  importation  of faced  green  tea — and  that  action 
naturally  made  this  country  and  Canada  the  only  outlets  for  the  nu- 
merous vile  concoctions  of  which  theChine.se  and  their  darker-skinned 
neighbors,  the  Japanese,  have  shown  themselves  only  too  capable  iu 
manipulation.  Faced  tea  is  easily  detected  by  connoisseurs,  as  it  has 
a  blueish  hue,  and  when  drawn  has  a  collection  of  scum  of  the  same 
color  on  the  top  of  the  liquor. 

Gunpowder  t-hould  be  round,  like  small  shot,  with  a  delicate 
bloom  which  will  not  bear  to  be  breathed  upon,  has  a  greenish  hue, 


152  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

and  a  fragrant,  pungent  taste.  It  is  of  a  dark  green  color.  This 
kind  of  tea -is  often  adulterated  by  inferior  kinds,  artificially  colored, 
glazed  and  manufactured  to  look  like  the  gunpowder  with  which  it  is 
mixed.  When  the  leaf  is  opened  and  loose,  the  outside  of  a  darker 
shade,  and  the  taste  metallic  and  unpleasant,  it  should  be  rejected. 

Imperial  is  very  similar  to  Gunpowder,  only  more  loosely  rolled 
and  coarser. 

Young  Hyson  is  divided  into  two  distinct  kinds,  Moyune  and  Ping 
Suey.  Moyune  is  usually  packed  in  half  chests,  Ping  Suey  in  boxes. 
Moyune  does  not  possess  the  same  good  make  and  handsome  regu- 
larity of  leaf  for  which  Ping  Suey  is  noted,  but  it  is  finer  in  flavor, 
drawing  a  rich,  mellow  and  delicious  liquor.  Ping  Suey,  not  being 
so  fine,  is  more  bitter  and  coarser.  Moyune,  Hysons  and  Gunpow- 
der arc  much  less  subjected  to  adulteration  than  the  other  green  teas. 

Old  Hyson  is  similar  in  character  to  Young  Hyson,  but  is  much 
larger  and  more  irregular  in  leaf.  It  draws  a  good  liquor,  but  its 
color  and  style  does  not  recommend  it  when  sold  by  itself.  It  is  usu- 
ally employed  for  mixing  with  black  teas,  and  gives  a  good  body  to 
teas  sold  at  more  moderate  prices.  Some  of  the  Old  Hyson  is  simply 
the  true  hyson,  rather  aged,  and  after  repeated  drying  and  freshing 
up,  is  sent  to  the  market  a  second  time. 

Twarikay  consists  of  the  broken  and  mixed  leaves,  and  is  of  an 
inferior  quality.  It  is  a  more  unsightly  tea  than  hyson,  with  larger, 
yellowish,  badly-rolled  leaves,  and  is  ranked  by  the  trade  among  the 
cheapest  of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  greens,  though  occasionally 
some  good  parcels  may  be  had.  It  is  very  seldom  retailed  by  itself. 
The  infusion  is  of  a  deep  yellow  color,  and  clear,  sharp  taste. 

Japan  furnishes  us  with  both  colored  and  uncolored  green  tea — 
the  greater  proportion  being  colored  and  subjected  to  considerably 
more  adulteration  than  Chinese  teas.  They  have  an  agreeable  odor, 
and  in  the  cup  Japan  tea  should  be  of  light  color  and  fragrant ;  the 
better  qualities  having  a  mild  and  pleasant  taste. 

BLACK  TEAS. — Oolongs  are  very  highly  dried,  of  wiry,  brittle 
leaf,  and  valued  according  to  the  degree  of  strength  and  pungency 
and  freedom  from  dust,  and  are  divided  into  three  distinct  classes, 
according  to  the  localities  and  district  of  their  growth,  viz.,  Formosa, 
Foochow  and  Amoy. 

The  Formosa  Teas  are  rapidly  rising  in  public  favor,  and  will, 
without  doubt,  shortly  become  the  leading  black  tea  in  the  market. 
Though  ranked  in  this  country  under  the  head  of  Black  Tea,  it  would 
be  more  correct  to  grade  it  between  the  uncolored  green  and  the  black 
teas  of  India  and  China — the  liquor  decidedly  resembling  that  of  the 
uncolored  greens.  Formosa  and  Foochow  rank  first  in  quality  and 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  153 

aroma,  the  latter  possessing  a  more  distinctive  flavor,  while  all  the 
commoner  grades  may  safely  be  classed  under  the  Amoy  kinds.  The 
finest  is  free  from  stalk,  fine  twisted  leaf,  and  of  delicate  flavor  and 
full  strength.  The  Formosa  Oolong  Tea  is  the  most  satisfactory  arti- 
cle where  fine  taste  is  consulted.  The  aroma  and  flavor  are  vastly 
superior  to  any  other  kind  of  tea,  with  the  exception  of  the  early- 
picked  Rose  Leaf  Japan  ;  and  for  body  and  strength  it  far  exceeds  all 
other  varieties.  It  is  susceptible  of  reduction  in  strength  to  a  larger 
degree  without  destroying  the  flavor,  and  is  the  only  tea  that  furnishes 
u  satisfactory  second  dressing. 

SCENTED  TEAS — Are  chiefly  divided  into  Foochow  and  Canton, 
the  Foochow  being  the  highest  scented,  but  generally  drawing  a 
weaker  water.  Those  from  Canton  draw  a  good,  deep  liquor,  and 
are  strong  and  rough  to  the  palate.  These  two  teas  are  chiefly  used 
by  the  manufacturing  classes  of  England  and  America.  In  all  scented 
teas  those  are  considered  the  best  which  have  an  olive  color,  and  the 
infusion  a  bright  green. 

Scented  Orange  Pekoe  is  a  long  leaf  tea,  well  twisted.  One  par- 
ticular brand  of  it  is  termed  "  spider-legged,"  from  the  length  of  its 
leaves.  The  small-leaved  Orange  Pekoe,  known  as  Owe/mm,  draws 
a  darker  liquor  than  Foochow,  and  is  in  some  cases  quite  as  delicate 
in  flavor. 

Scented  Caper  is,  in  appearance,  much  like  Gunpowder,  only 
black  instead  of  green.  In  character  it  is  like  Pekoe,  but  slightly 
different  in  flavor.  About  twenty  years  since,  this  tea  got  into  great 
disrepute,  owing  to  the  method  in  which  it  was  made.  By  collecting 
the  dust  of  other  teas,  and  adding  gum  and  steel  filings  to  it,  they 
were  able  to  make  a  pretty-looking  tea  by  strongly  facing  it  with 
black  lead  ;  but  the  public  taste  is  now  so  opposed  to  faced  teas  of 
any  kind,  that  dealers  who  know  anything  of  the  trade  resolutely  re- 
ject everything  with  facing  on. 

Congou  is  really  the  black  tea  of  China,  and  is  commonly  known 
in  this  country  as  English  Breakfast  Tea,  which  is  in  reality  mis- 
called, as  all  descriptions  of  tea  are  sold  in  England,  and  they  seldom 
sell  any  particular  brand  by  itself — the  English  being  great  adepts  in 
mixing  and  blending,  so  as  to  suit  the  tastes  and  palates  of  their  cus- 
tomers in  different  parts  of  the  country.  In  fact,  blending  tea  is  con- 
sidered in  England  as  one  of  ike  fine  arts  of  the  trade.  Congou  com- 
prises the  following  brands  :  Moning,  Kaisow,  Souchong  and  New- 
Make.  Moning  is  again  subdivided  into  N ing-Chow,  Oopack  and 
Barfa,  the  quality  ranging  in  the  order  as  named.  Kaisow  is  sub- 
divided into  Ching-Woo,  Panyongs  and  Saryquues.  The  Ning-Chow 
and  Ching-Woo,  of  both  Moning  and  Kaisow  kinds,  are  the  purest 
and  finest  teas  imported  from  China.  Souchong  is  a  strong,  black 


154  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

tea;  the  leaves  are  large,  rough,  and  often  broken.  The  infusion  is 
clear  and  aromatic. 

Java.  Tea.  is  very  similar  in  character  to  some  of  the  varieties 
grown  in  British  India.  With  a  little  more  care  in  the  drying  and 
manipulation  of  the  Java  teas,  the  consumption  cannot  fail  to 
increase. 

Most  of  our  tea  trade  with  China  is  carried  on  from  the  ports  of 
Shanghai,  Foochow  and  Amoy.  The  annual  importation  into  the 
United  States  aggregates  about  70,000,000  pounds,  which  would 
give  about  one  and  three-quarter  pounds  to  each  person  in  this 
country.  Of  this  amount  Japan  tea  takes  the  lead.  Tea  prepared 
for  shipping  is  more  highly  fired  than  that  for  home  use — that  coming 
across  the  Pacific  being  generally  superior  to  that  from  other  routes. 
The  tea  sent  overland  to  Russia  is  usually  in  the  form  of  bricks. 
Tt  is  made  by  mixing  the  dried  leaves  with  some  glutinous  substance, 
putting  it  in  moulds,  and  drying  it  in  an  oven.  Tea  as  generally  ex- 
ported is  packed  loose  in  wooden  chests  lined  with  sheet  lead.  Tea 
dust  has  of  late  years  made  its  appearance  in  our  markets,  but  it  can- 
not be  recommended,  cither  for  cleanliness,  purity  or  quality. 

In  the  steeping  of  tea  the  amount  should  be  regulated  by  weight, 
as  the  bulk  and  weight  are  not  reconcilable.  A  given  bulk  of  Gun- 
powder is  three  times  heavier  than  Oolong.  Soft  water  is  much  pre- 
ferable to  well  water,  and  the  water  used  should  be  newly  boiled. 
The  water  should  be  applied  to  the  tea  while  boiling,  and  the  tea  al- 
lowed to  stand  for  five  minutes,  when  it  mav  be  served.  Black  and 
Japan  teas  require  more  steeping  to  extract  their  essential  qualities 
than  green  teas.  In  this  country  sugar  and  milk  are  generally  added  ; 
in  Russia  lemon  juice  is  used  ;  but  in  its  native  country,  the  tea  is 
drank  clear. 

The  Tea.  Trade  has  long  been  known  as  one  of  the  most  specu- 
lative in  existence.  It  has  puzzled  the  cleverest  merchants  and  tea- 
tasters  in  China  to  make  anything  like  a  sure  Ibreca.-t  r.s  to  the  run 
of  the  markets,  and  at  the  lust  moment  the  most  careful  calculations 
are  liable  to  be  upset  by  some  unforeseen  circumstance. 

INDIAN  TEAS. — Indian  Teas,  though  principally  drank  in  Ire- 
land, are  rapidly  making  their  way  into  this  country,  and  therefore 
deserve  a  passing  mention.  They  are  broadly  divided  into  three 
classes — Pekoe,  Pekoe  »Sjw/(o»7,  and  Connou,  each  nf  which  are 
distinctly  characterized  by  perfect  purity,  and  entirely  free  from  the 
artificial  means  used  in  China  and  Japan  to  give  <-olor,  fragrance, 
strength  and  flavor  to  the  leaf,  nor  are  they  put  through  the  same 
mode  of  drying  and  curing.  They  rely  entirely  upon  their  natural 
strength  and  flavor  for  their  popularity.  Not  being  .subjected  to  arti- 
ficial flavoring,  their  differences,  though  perhaps  greater  in  variety, 
are  neither  so  distinct  in  flavor  or  character,  which  accounts  in  some 


THE    GROCERS    COMPANION.  155 

measure  for  the  comparatively  small  parcels  of  Indian  teas  as  com- 
pared with  China  and  Japan.  Any  attempt  to  classify  these  teas, 
therefore,  under  the  same  heads  as  those  of  China  and  Japan,  would 
be  unjust  both  to  the  tea  and  to  the  dealer. 

The  Indian  Pekoe  is  the  finest,  being  both  perfect  in  the  leaf,  abso- 
lutely pure,  and  of  fine,  rich  flavor  and  full  body.  The  rich  Pekoe 
tips  add  considerably  to  its  appearance.  Pekoe  Souchong  is  not  nearly 
so  well  made  a  tea,  being  larger  in  leaf  and  altogether  rougher  in 
appearance.  In  the  cup  there  is  not  so  much  difference.  Some  par- 
cels draw  a  remarkably  fine  liquor,  both  for  strength  and  flavor. 
Congou  does  not  form  any  large  extent  of  the  production  in  India, 
and  comes  nearer  in  character,  though  not  in  appearance,  to  the 
Congou  of  China. 

TESTING  TEA. — The  first  essential  in  this  important  operation 
is  a  sensitive,  unvitiated  palate  on  the  part  of  the  taster — persons 
habituated  to  chewing  tobacco  or  drinking  spirituous  liquors,  are  ut- 
terly incapable  of  acquiring  the  excessive  delicacy  of  taste  necessary 
to  proper  judgment  of  the  peculiar  qualities  of  this  herb.  The  only 
other  necessaries,  a  druggist's  balance,  a  ten-cent  piece  for  a  weight, 
a  small  gas-stove  and  kettle  for  the  boiling  of  water,  and  a  dozen 
small  china  cups  of  equal  size. 

TEA  CADDIES. — There  are  various  descriptions  made  in  this  coun- 
try, in  imitation  of  the  original  Japan  and  Chinese  chests  ;  they  are 
made  in  all  sizes  and  shapes,  and  may  be  made  a  source  of  consider- 
able convenience  and  profit  to  the  grocer. 

TIL  TEA — Is  a  special  description  of  tea  made  in  China,  in  the 
form  of  a  brick  ^  and  chiefly  sold  to  the  Tartars,  Armenians  and  Rus- 
sians inhabiting  the  Asiatic  and  more  northern  territories.  The 
method  of  its  preparation  differs  considerably  from  that  of  ordinary 
tea,  being  stewed  with  milk,  butter,  salt  and  herbs,  and  partaking 
more  of  the  character  of  an  urticle  of  diet  than  of  a  beverage. 

THYME. — A  herb  used  chiefly  for  seasoning  of  meats,  soups 
and  various  dishes.  It  is  largely  cultivated  in  Europe,  but  not  in  this 
country — the  supply  being  wholly  imported.  Its  odor  is  agreeable, 
pungent,  strong  and  penetrating. 

TIERCE.  —  A  cask  containing  in  liquids  about  forty-two 
gallons  or  one-third  of  a  pipe — the  regulation-quantity  of  which  u 
one  hundred  and  twenty  gallons.  The  word  tierce  is  also  applied 
to  casks  of  a  similar  size  used  for  packing  lard,  rice,  hams,  etc.,  but 
has  no  reference  to  the  measurement  of  its  contents. 

TIN  CANS. — Almost  every  article  of  a  fluid  or  semi-fluid 
character,  and  those  liable  to  deterioration  from  exposure  to  the  air, 
is  packed  in  tin  cans,  the  cost  of  which  has  been  reduced  to  an  almost 


l.jG  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

nominal  rate  by  the  introduction  of  machinery  in  their  manufacture — 
indeed,  their  cost  may  be  said  to  be  more  than  counterbalanced  by 
the  saving  effected  in  the  prevention  of  waste  and  leakage. 

TOBACCO. — Tobacco,  in  all  its  forms,  is  now  as  much  a  ne- 
necessury  and  staple  article  in  every  grocery  store,  as  tea  or  sugar. 
It  would  be  needless  for  us  to  describe  the  process  of  manufacture,  as 
that  is  well-known  to  every  one,  whether  connected  with  the  trade  or 
not.  Whether  it  be  in  the  form  of  cigars,  plug,  chewing  and  smok- 
ing tobacco  or  snuff,  a  constant  and  fresh  supply  should  always  be 
kept  in  stock,  and  sold  at  a  moderate  rate  of  profit.  Cheap  or  infer- 
ior stock  should  always  be  avoided,  for  if  the  grocer  confines  his  sale 
to  the  best  brands,  he  will  be  able  to  give  satisfaction  to  all  classes  of 
his  customers  ;  sell  quite  as  cheaply  as  any  cigar  dealer  can,  and  at 
the  same  time  realize  a  fair  profit,  say  from  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent. 
The  sale  of  the  lower  grades  of  quality  will  not  add  either  to  his 
reputation  nor  to  his  receipts,  and  will  certainly  repel  the  better  class 
of  customers. 

The  distinctive  and  valuable  properties  of  tobacco  are  found 
mostly  in  the  leaves,  for  which  the  plant  is  cultivated.  The  oil  dis- 
tilled from  tobacco,  and  called  tobacco  oil,  is  a  virulent,  deadly 
poison.  In  the  process  of  manufacture,  the  leaves  are  partially  fer- 
mented before  drying,  resulting  in  the  development  of  a  powerful 
aroma,  with  strong  narcotic  and  acrid  properties.  After  it  has  been 
cured,  it  is  dried  and  shipped — which  operation  can  only  be  performed 
in  damp  weather.  In  a  crop  of  tobacco  there  should  be  four  sorts — 
second,  bright,  yellow  and  dull — which  are  of  course  tied  into  bundles 
aud  kept  separate  for  convenience  in  Bulking.  The  best  time  for 
packing  is  during  the  mild,  pleasant  weather  of  spring  or  summer. 
Jt  is  generally  packed  in  hogsheads,  the  brand  and  grade  being  usu- 
ally marked  and  certified  by  a  State  inspector,  on  the  head  of  each 
hogshead  or  package.  They  vary  much  in  size  and  weight ;  in  Vir- 
ginia and  adjacent  States,  the  hogsheads  contain  from  two  hundred 
and  fifty  to  twelve  hundred  pounds  each.  The  inferior  growths  of 
Maryland,  consisting  of  stems,  lugs,  etc.,  packed  for  export,  weigh- 
ing from  six  hundred  and  fifty  to  eight  hundred  pounds  per  hogs- 
head. Western  tobacco  reaches  fifteen  hundred  pounds,  or  more. 
Leaf  tobacco  is  also  packed  in  bales  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds 
weight  for  export,  and  manufactured  tobacco  in  cases  of  the  same 
average  weight.  Lugs  are  the  lowest  quality  of  tobacco  exported, 
and  consist  of  stems,  strippings  and  broken  leaves.  The  best  full 
leaves  are  commonly  packed  as  wrappers,  and  usually  bring  the  high- 
est prices.  Manufactured  tobacco,  as  it  is  called  in  the  trade,  is  spe- 
cially distinguished  from  both  the  whole  leaf  and  cigars  or  muff,  and 
is  usually  made  from  inferior  or  defective  leaves  ;  they  are  piled  one 
upon  the  other,  and  then  cut  in  a  machine,  similar  to  our  straw  or 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  157 

chaff  cutters,  worked  by  horse  or  steam  power,  which  can  be  regu- 
lated to  cut  the  leaf  either  coarse  or  fine.  The  dark  leaves,  after 
being  cut.  are  rendered  still  darker  by  the  addition  of  syrups  and  lico- 
rice, subjected  to  additional  pressure,  and  finally  labelled,  cut  into 
blocks  and  cakes  of  various  forms  and  sizes,  and  christened  by  vari- 
ous fancy  and  attractive  names,  such  as  adorn  the  price-lists  of  the 
NEW  ENGLAND  GROCER.  The  better  sort  of  leaves  are  spun  into- 
rolls  of  different  sizes ;  what  is  known  as  Negrohead,  consisting  'of 
large,  coarse  rolls,  weighing  from  six  to  eight  pounds.  Pigtail  i.-; 
also  spun,  but  is  made  into  fine  rolls  about  the  size  of  a  pipe-stem  — 
all  of  these  being  rendered  palatable  by  the  addition  of  sweetening. 
The  outsides  of  these  rolls  are  wrapped  round  with  whole  leavrs. 
The  style  of  plug  known  as  Cavendish  is  first  cut  by  machinery,  and1 
being  softened  and  flavored,  is,  by  powerful  pressure,  formed  into- 
cakes,  packed  into  oak  boxes  or  caddies,  and  sent  to  market.  It  is 
used  both  for  the  purposes  of  chewing  and  smoking.  The  names 
Cavendish,  Navy-twist,  Negrohead,  etc.,  are  standard  names  or 
brands  by  which  the  different  forms  of  solid  or  pressed  tobacco  are 
known.  "Fine-cut"  chewing  is  shredded  and  loose,  and  cut  by 
delicate  machinery  from  the  better  qualities  of  leaves,  flavored  by 
sweetening.  In  fine  cut,  the  length  of  the  shreds  and  a  bright  color, 
are  tests  of  good  quality.  Smoking  tobacco  is  made  of  all  grades 
and  styles,  but  mostly  from  stems,  broken  leaves,  and  other  inferior 
parts.  In  the  trade  the  numerous  styles  and  names  are  constantly 
changing — Killikinneck,  Cut  Cavendish,  and  the  common  cut  leaf, 
embracing  most  of  these  classes.  For  these  kinds  of  smoking,  the 
tobacco  is  either  granulated  in  a  mill  or  shaved  in  a  fine  cutting  ma- 
chine. Most  of  the  operations  in  the  manufacture  of  tobacco  are  done 
by  machinery.  Shorts  is  a  name  given  to  the  siftings  of  tobacco, 
and  is  used  both  for  smoking  and  chewing. 

SNUFF — Is  manufactured  from  the  leaf-stalks  and  leaves  of  the 
tobacco,  combined  with  leaves  of  other  plants,  rosewood  dust,  salt,, 
and  various  drugs.  The  material  is  well  dried  before  being  ground 
into  powder,  which  is  effected  by  mills  constructed  for  the  purpose. 
In  the  earlier  half  of  this  century,  snuff  was  made  by  grinding  the  to- 
bacco in  small  mortars,  the  pestles  of  which  were  moved  by  machinery. 
The  standard  branches  of  snuff  in  the  market  are  the  Maccaboy  (orig- 
inally from  Martinique  and  Spain),  Rappee,  a  French  variety,  air.l 
that  known  as  Scotch  snuff.  The  revenue  tax  on  manufactured 
snuff  is  twenty-four  cents  per  pound.  Though  snuff  is  so  largely 
adulterated,  there  is  but  little  adulteration  in  manfactured  tobacco, 
except  possibly  in  the  poorer  descriptions  of  smoking.  The  internal 
revenue  receipts  on  all  descriptions  of  tobacco,  amount  annually  to 
more  than  $47,000,000.  Most  of  our  exported  tobacco  goes  to  Ger- 
many and  the  Low  Countries  ;  the  next  in  order  to  precedence  being 
England,  France,  Italy,  etc. 


158  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

Bremen  and  Liverpool  are  the  greatest  general  tobacco  markets 
in  Europe — the  United  States  producing  considerably  more  than 
half  of  the  tobacco  consumed  in  the  world.  The  average  annual 
crop  of  the  United  States  exceeds  550,000,000  pounds.  The  produc- 
tion of  Cuba  is  of  a  superior  quality,  and  is  almost  wholly  consumed 
in  the  manufacture  of  cigars,  either  at  home  or  abroad.  One  of  the 
best  tobacco-growing  districts  in  the  United  States  is  Virginia,  where 
the  seed  is  sown  about  the  first  week  in  January,  and  the  plants  are 
transplanted  from  the  seed-beds  about  the  beginning  of  June  to  the 
end  of  July — this  operation  only  being  performed  in  wet  weather. 
The  crops  require  great  care  in  being  kept  clear  of  weeds,  and  when 
the  flowers-buds  appear  they  have  to  be  nipped  off,  otherwise  the 
plant  would  be  much  weakened ;  but  in  Turkey  and  Greece,  where 
the  small  leaves  are  preferred,  and  especially  in  the  more  select  classes 
of  tobacco,  such  as  the  celebrated  Latakia  brand,  both  leaves,  buds 
iind  flowers  are  used.  Tobacco  is  usually  cut  at  mid-day,  when  the 
morning  and  evening  dews  are  absent,  and  the  sun  is  at  its  full 
strength.  The  cutting  is  always  done  by  hand,  and  only  such  plants 
selected  as  are  fully  ripe,  which  is  known  by  a  sort  of  glutinous  exu- 
dation covering  the  leaf  and  giving  it  a  spotted  appearance.  The 
government  of  the  United  States  exercises  a  very  strict  surveillance 
over  the  weight  and  quality  of  all  tobacco  grown  and  cured  within  its 
jurisdiction.  A  large  tobacco  export  has  been  carried  on  by  Para- 
guay during  the  past  ten  years  ;  the  quality,  though  fair  and  steadily 
improving,  is  not  equal  to  the  State-grown  tobacco ;  it  is  packed  in 
linen  bales.  The  quality  of  Turkish  tobacco  is  very  peculiar  ;  small 
in  the  leaf  and  of  a  light  color — bright  yellow,  yellowish-greeu  or 
yello wish-brown,  and,  being  extremely  mild,  is  a  great  favorite  with 
a  large  class  of  smokers. 

The  advantages  or  disadvantages  arising  from  the  use  of  tobacco 
have  always  been  a  great  and  exciting  subject  of  controversy — many 
of  its  opponents  asserting  that  its  use  is  more  productive  of  injury 
than  even  alcoholic  beverages,  while  others  make  equally  positive  as- 
sertions of  its  beneficial  influence.  Dr.  Richardson,  however,  in  a 
pamphlet  recently  published,  has  chosen  the  happy  medium,  in  which, 
usually,  truth  can  only  be  found.  He  says,  "•Before  the  full  matu- 
rity of  the  system  is  attained,  even  the  smallest  amount  of  smoking  is 
hurtful ;  subsequently  the  practice  is  only  hurtful  when  carried  to  ex- 
cess. We  cannot  honestly  say  more  against  tobacco  than  can  be  urged 
against  any  other  luxury,  it  is  the  least  injurious.  It  is  innocuous  as 
compared  with  alcohol ;  it  does  infinitely  less  harm  than  opium  ;  it  id 
in  no  sense  worse  than  tea  ;  and  by  the  side  of  high  living  altogether, 
it  contrasts  most  favorably."  The  evil  is  greatest  with  chewing, 
smoking  next,  and  snuffing  last.  Tobacco  is  used  to  a  slight  extent 
in  medicine. 


THE    GROCERS    COMPANION.  159 

TOLU. — This  is  a  balsam  or  gum  obtained  from  a  tree  cultiva- 
ted in  South  America.  It  has  a  fragrant  odor,  is  of  a  pale  brown 
color,  and  dissolves  readily  in  spirits.  It  is  the  foundation  of  the 
combination  sold  by  liquor  dealers,  and  known  to  the  trade  as  "  Rock- 
and-Rye,"  and  is  also  used  by  confectioners  in  various  cough  candies. 

TOMATO. — A  plant  native  to  tropical  America,  and  largely 
cultivated  both  in  this  country  and  Europe.  It  is  called  by  some 
Love  Apple,  and  the  fruit  is  eaten  both  raw  and  cooked.  They  enter 
considerably  into  the  manufacture  of  soup,  sauces  and  pickles  ;  and, 
during  the  last  ten  years,  an  extensive  trade  has  been  developed  in 
them  as  "  Canned  Goods."  The  varieties  in  cultivation  are  very  nu- 
merous, especially  in  the  northern  United  States — the  fruit  season 
being  at  its  height  in  August  and  September.  Large  quantities  are 
also  brought  from  the  West  Indies  in  May  and  June.  The  best  kinds 
now  in  cultivation  are  the  Canada  Victor,  Trophy  and  General  Grant, 
but  new  and  excellent  varieties  are  constantly  being  added.  Besides 
being  used  as  an  article  of  diet,  it  is  considered  as  an  efficacious  rem- 
edy for  dyspepsia  and  indigestion. 

The  process  of  canning  is  a  large  and  profitable  industry.  The 
tomatoes  are  first  scalded  and  taken  to  the  factory  in  wooden  pails, 
where  a  small  army  of  women  are  employed  in  paring  them,  and,  at 
the  rate  of  live  cents  a  pail,  earn  very  fair  wages.  After  critical  in- 
pection  they  are  passed  through  a  funnel-shaped  machine  into  the 
cans,  having  been  cut  into  pieces  on  their  passage.  The  contents  are 
subjected  to  a  slight  pi-cssure,  and  a  portion  of  the  juice  poured  off, 
when  the  tops  are  carefully  soldered  on  the  cans ;  they  are  then  con- 
veyed to  the  "  bath  room,"  where  they  are  placed  in  vats  of  water 
heated  by  steam,  and  slowly  cooked.  After  this  they  are  allowed 
to  cool,  carried  to  the  storehouse  and  labelled. 

TONGUE. — Tongues  are  procured  from  several  animals,  but 
chiefly  from  the  ox  and  calf,  and  are,  without  doubt,  the  most  deli- 
rate  and  tenderest  meat  used  for  food — those  with  plenty  of  thick, 
firm  fat  on  the  under  side  being  usually  selected.  They  are  exten- 
sively canned,  and  many  of  the  best  brands  are  quite  as  good,  both 
in  quality  and  flavor,  as  when  bought  and  cooked  fresh.  "  Lunch 
tongues  "are  generally  pig  tongues,  canned  in  western  markets. 
"  Compressed  tongue,"  as  its  name  indicates,  is  subjected  to  pressure, 
either  before  canning  or  during  the  process.  Dealers  should  never 
sell  any  canned  goods  of  meat,  tongue  or  fish,  during  warm  weather, 
without  reminding  the  buyer  of  the  necessity  of  thoroughly  cooling  it 
before  cutting  it  open. 

TONQUA  BEANS. — These  productions  are  natives  of  South 
America,  are  aromatic  in  odor  and  strong  in  taste,  and  chiefly  used 
in  perfuming  snuff  and  scenting  clothes,  having  the  peculiar  property 


160  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

of  preventing  the  incursion  of  moths  and  other  destructive  insects. 
The  essential  oil  obtained  from  them  is  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  toilet  essences. 

TRICHINA. — These  small  parasites  or  worms  are  found  in 
large  numbers  in  pork  and  in  dried  raw  or  partly-cooked  meats,  used 
by  Germans  in  the  form  of  smoke-dried  sausages,  with  whom  they 
are  a  favorite  article  of  diet.  After  entering  the  human  system  they 
breed  very  rapidly,  pass  directly  through  the  walls  of  the  intestines, 
and  bury  themselves  in  the  muscles  and  tissues,  causing  various  dis- 
eases similar  in  character  to  diphtheria,  membraneous  crqup,  etc. 
The  young  are  almost  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  exist  in  extra- 
ordinary numbers  in  the  smallest  possible  compass.  More  than 
twenty  millions  have  been  discovered  in  a  single  person.  Thoroughly 
salted  meats  are  free  fiom  them,  and  they  do  not  survive  a  certain 
temperature,  and  death  renders  them  harmless ;  but  even  in  cooked 
meat,  say  in  the  centre  of  an  ordinary  joint  of  meat,  the  temperature 
is  not.  sufficient  to  ensure  the  entire  destruction  of  the  parasite.  In 
fact  trichina  would  escape  almost  entirely  the  action  of  boiling  water 
in  cooking. 

TRIPE. — An  article  of  food  prepared  from  the  stomach  and 
intestines  of  the  ox  and  cow,  with  the  fatty  structure  adhering  to 
them.  It  is  prepared  by  thoroughly  cleansing  them  from  all  impuri- 
ties, and  gently  boiling  them  in  water  for  an  hour.  It  is  easy  of  di- 
gestion and  agreeable  in  flavor,  and  is  eaten  both  fresh  and  pickled. 
When  dark  or  thin,  the  quality  is  invariably  poor. 

TROUT. — A  fish  of  the  salmon  family,  varying  in  size  from 
twenty-four  to  sixty  inches  in  length,  spotted  on  the  back  and  sides, 
and  the  under  part  of  crearn  color.  These  are  called  Great  Trout, 
and  weigh  from  five  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds,  and  are 
known  by  the  name  of  Mackinaw  trout.  They  are  found  in  the  deep 
waters  of  our  lakes,  and  are  taken  both  by  net  and  hook.  They  are, 
to  a  great  extent,  eaten  fresh,  and  are  canned  in  that  condition,  and 
considered  a  great  delicacy.  They  are  also  salted  and  packed  in  bar- 
rels, in  a  similar  manner  to  the  mackerel.  The  Speckled  or  Brook 
Trout,  found  in  the  clear  streams  of  northern  North  America,  are 
from  six  to  twenty  inches  long. 

TRUCK. — This  is  a  term  applied  to  a  low  barrow  or  team, 
driven  by  hand,  and  is  chiefly  used  by  grocers  and  other  traders  in 
their  local  custom,  for  moving  their  goods  about  their  own  premises, 
and  to  customers  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  their  store.  The  term 
is  also  used  in  the  middle  States  to  designate  all  vegetables  or  fruit, 
which  is  called  "  Garden  Truck."  A  Truck  farm  is  one  entirely  de- 
voted to  the  growth  of  vegetable  produce. 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  161 

TRUFFLES. — The  general  name  of  a  species  of  fungi,  not 
generally  grown  in  America,  but  plentiful  in  Europe  ;  and,  from  its 
extremely  agreeable  flavor,  much  sought  after  as  an  article  of  domestic 
cookery,  and  usually  eaten  with  poultry  and  rich  meats.  It  is  only 
from  six  to  twelve  inches  below  the  surface  ;  and  in  France,  where  it 
is  especially  plentiful,  pigs  and  trained  dogs  are  employed  to  find 
them,  which  they  do  by  scent,  the  attendants  digging  them  out  with 
a  trowel.  Truffles  are  usually  found  in  chalky  soils,  growing  near 
the  roots  of  oak  and  other  trees. 

TUNNY  FISH.— These  fish  are  of  the  mackerel  family,  and 
are  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  Black  and  Mediterranean  Seas, 
and  also  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  They  are  usually  caught  in  a  net  of 
a  peculiar  shape,  measure  from  twelve  to  twenty  feet  in  length,  and 
often  weigh  more  than  one  thousand  pounds.  In  America  it  is  met 
with  all  along  the  New  York  coast,  and  thence  northward  to  Nova 
8cotia.  The  flesh  is  eaten  both  fresh  and  salted,  and  is  considered  a 
delicacy.  It  yields  a  considerable  quantity  of  oil — as  much  as 
twenty  gallons  being  obtained  from  a  single  fish,  by  boiling  the 
head  and  belly. 

TURMERIC. — The  Turmeric  of  commerce  is  simply  certain 
dried  roots  reduced  to  a  powder.  It  is  used  chiefly  as  a  coloring 
matter  in  various  preparations  for  domestic  use,  and  as  a  vehicle  to 
disguise  or  admit  of  adulterations  in  various  articles,  such  as  mus- 
tard, spices,  etc.  It  is  also  used  as  a  condiment  with  many  kinds  of 
food,  and  is  one  of  the  principal  ingredients  in  every  powder  in  the 
market. 

TURNIP. — The  Turnip  is  extensively  cultivated  in  all  temper- 
ate climates,  and  used  for  the  food  of  both  man  and  beast.  It  is  not 
very  nutritious,  containing  nearly  ninety  per  cent,  of  water,  which 
renders  it  unpopular,  though  it  is  frequently  used  with  other  vegeta- 
bles in  soups.  It  is  mainly  used  as  winter  food  for  cattle.  The 
Swedish  turnip  or  Ruta-baga,  is  a  distinct  variety,  having  an  elonga- 
ted root.  There  are  a  large  number  of  varieties  both  of  these  and 
the  flat  turnip.  The  best-known  varieties  are  the  White  Dutch, 
Yellow  Aberdeen  and  the  Loring,  and  also  the  improved  American 
Ruta-baga. 

TURTLE. — This  popular  marine  animal  (for  it  partakes  of  the 
character  of  fish,  flesh  and  fowl,  in  almost  equal  proportions)  is 
highly  esteemed  for  the  delicacy  and  rich  character  of  its  meat. 
Though  not  found  within  the  waters  of  the  United  States,  it  is  im- 
ported in  large  quantities  into  this  country,  and  is  used  in  the  form 
of  steaks,  stews,  soups,  etc.  The  Green  turtle  leads  all  other  varie- 
ties in  the  market.  It  is  frequently  dried  in  the  West  Indies  and 


162  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

sent  here  in  that  condition  ;  and  is  almost  if  not  quite  equal  to  fresh 
turtle  in  quality  and  flavor,  while  considerably  lower  in  price.  Ter- 
rapins or  Snappers  are  a  small  variety  of  turtle,  much  used  in  soups  ; 
and  canned  Green  Turtle  and  Terrapin  soups,  are  to  be  found  for  sale 
in  all  the  leading  stores  of  our  cities  and  towns. 

ULLAGE — Is  a  term  used  to  signify  the  vacant  or  unfilled 
space  in  any  cask  containing  liquids,  and  of  course  varies  consider- 
ably, according  to  the  nature  of  the  goods  and  the  customary  practices 
of  the  dealer. 

YALENCIAS. — Raisins  prepared  by  dipping  the  bunches  of 
grapes  into  a  warm  alkali,  made  of  wood  ashes,  oil  and  lime,  and 
afterwards  drying  them  in  the  sun  ;  they  are  used  for  pastry,  while 
the  muscatels,  dried  on  the  vine,  are  the  class  generally  enten  un- 
cooked for  the  dessert. 

YANILLA. — The  Vanilla  plant  is  found  native  in  South  Amer- 
ica, Mexico  and  the  West  Indies,  but  it  is  only  in  the  wild  valleys 
near  the  eastern  coast  of  Mexico  that  the  Vanilla  bean  used  in  con- 
fection and  for  flavoring  chocolates  can  be  obtained.  The  great 
valley  of  the  Mazatlan  produces  it  in  great  luxuriance,  and  the  sur- 
rounding region  may  properly  be  termed  the  great  centre  of  supply 
for  the  world.  The  wild  bean  is  only  good  for  perfumery,  but  is 
not  suitable  for  flavoring,  and  realizes  from  fifty  to  sixty  cents  per 
pound.  The  French  confectioner,  both  here  and  in  France,  use  the 
bean  instead  of  the  extract  in  their  preparations.  There  is  an  article 
produced  in  Germany,  imitative  of  Vanilla,  and  called  "Vanillan," 
from  the  common  hemlock. 

VEGETABLES. — The  grocer  who  undertakes  to  handle  vege- 
tables and  fruits  without  thoroughly  understanding  them  and  their 
peculiarities,  had  much  better  leave  them  alone.  Fruits  and  vegeta- 
bles give  a  good  margin  of  profits  to  those  who  handle  them  judi- 
ciously, but  they  prove  a  certain  source  of  ruin  to  the  ignorant  or 
careless  dealer.  To  obtain  the  earliest  and  best  supplies  from  the 
foreign  markets,  is  of  the  most  essential  importance.  Fruits  and 
light  vegetables  should  be  sold  and  eaten  before  the  close  of  the  day 
on  which  they  are  marketed,  or  they  will  prove  unsatisfactory  to  the 
purchaser,  and  a  bar  on  the  reputation  of  the  dealer.  A  large  ice 
chest,  with  compartments,  will  be  of  great  service  to  those  who  keep 
fruits  and  berries  to  any  extent  on  sale. 

VINEGrATC. — One  of  the  most  useful  and  frequently  seeded 
articles  in  the  long  catalogue  of  domestic  wants,  and  yet  but  seldom 
to  be  obtained — the  ordinary  article  sold  being  a  diluted  and  impure 
solution  of  acetic  acid.  Acetic  acid  is  the  most  common  of  the  vege- 
table acids,  occuriug  in  the  juices  of  a  large  number  of  plants.  Vine- 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  163 

gar  in  the  United  States  is  made  chiefly  from  cider,  although  whiskey 
and  other  alcoholic  liquors  are  brought  into  service  ;  and  even  the  re- 
fuse maple-sap,  too  poor  for  sugar,  is  boiled  down,  diluted  and  made 
into  vinegar.  The  flavor  and  quality  of  the  vinegar  depends  entirely 
upon  the  material  of  which  it  is  made,  and  the  quality  and  condition 
•of  that  material — thus  wine  vinegar  is  the  color  of  the  wine  produc- 
ing it.  Of  all  the  sources  for  the  production  of  vinegar,  cider  made 
from  sound,  ripe,  sweet  apples  by  a  good  process,  and  without  adul- 
terations, is  undoubtedly  the  most  agreeable  and  serviceable  descrip- 
tion in  use. 

From  the  high  price  of  acetic  acid,  vinegar  is  frequently  adul- 
terated with  sulphuric,  muriatic  or  nitric  acids,  and,  in  some  cases, 
there  is  not  a  trace  of  acetic  acid  to  be  found,  the  flavor  being  given 
by  the  addition  of  ether,  alum,  red  pepper,  mustard,  etc.,  these  adul- 
terations being  exceedingly  injurious  to  the  delicate  organism  of  the 
stomach. 

WALNUT. — This  favorite  nut  is  the  produce  of  a  large  tree 
growing  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  though  the  English  walnuts 
are  much  superior  in  size  and  quality  to  its  American  sister,  from 
the  fact  that  the  American  walnut  seldom  reaches  perfection.  Large 
quantities  of  the  English  walnut  are  imported,  and  form  an  important 
item  of  dessert,  while  the  young,  immature  parts  of  the  English  and 
the  American  walnut,  as  a  rule  are  generally  used  for  pickling — the 
green  nuts,  gathered  before  the  shell  has  had  time  to  harden,  being 
pickled  whole,  and  very  highly  prized  as  a  table  condiment.  The 
kernel  of  the  nut  is  very  rich  in  oil,  which  is  much  esteemed  by 
artists  and  varnish  makers.  The  timber  of  the  black  walnut  is  also 
very  valuable,  and  extensively  used  by  cabinet  makers. 

WASHING  POWDERS  AND  FLUIDS.— The  sole  object 

of  all  washing  preparations  is  to  lessen  the  actual  labor  of  washing. 
All  of  them,  no  matter  by  what  name  they  may  be  called,  have  the 
same  essential  elements.  If  fluid,  they  are  composed  of  soda,  lime, 
ummonia,  alcohol  and  water,  or  potash,  borax,  salt,  soapwash  and 
water  ;  if  in  the  shape  of  a  powder,  there  will  be  the  hydrous  silicate 
•of  soda  or  potash,  in  dry,  fine  powder,  carbonate  of  soda,  soda  ash 
and  lime.  The  only  difference  in  all  the  numerous  varieties  is  the 
relative  quantities  of  these  elements. 

WAX. — The  wax  commonly  known  to  grocers  is  the  substance 
of  which  the  cells  of  the  honeycomb  is  composed.  It  i.s  more  or  less 
yellow  in  color,  and  has  an  odor  resembling  that  of  honey.  After 
the  wax  has  served  its  original  purpose  in  the  hive,  it  is  collected  for 
manufacturing  purposes,  the  honey  is  pressed  out,  water  and  aque- 
ibrtis  is  then  blended  with  it  in  proper  proportions,  and  after  cooling 


164  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANIOX. 

off  it  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air  on  a  bleaching  ground,  and 
gradually  loses  both  color  and  odor  ;  after  which  process  it  is  ready 
for  market. 

MYRTLE  WAX — Is  obtained  from  a  plant  commonly  called  the 
Candleberry  or  Tallow  Tree,  a  native  of  the  United  States,  and  par- 
ticularly abundant  in  the  southern  States.  A  bushel  of  berries  will 
yield  from  four  to  five  pounds  of  wax,  which  is  chiefly  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  candles.  Candles  made  of  this  wax  burn  slowly,  emit 
little  smoke,  and  give  a  fragrant,  balsamic  odor,  but  have  not  much 
illuminating  power.  A  good,  exquisitely-scented  soap  is,  however, 
made  from  it. 

WAXED  PAPER — A  new  article  in  the  market ;  is  used  to  wrap 
butter,  lard  and  cheese ;  bought  at  retail,  and  is  very  convenient  and 
cleanly.  Being  very  cheap,  and,  when  well  made,  without  taste  or 
odor,  it  is  rapidly  getting  into  general  use. 

WHEAT. — This  is  a  staple  grain  in  the  United  States,  and  one 
of  the  most  valuable  and  universally  used  of  all  cereals,  furnishing 
the  chief  article  of  food  in  all  civilized  nations,  especially  in  temper- 
ate climates.  Besides  being  ground  into  flour  and  baked  into  bread, 
the  grain  itself  is  crushed,  with  the  husk  or  shell,  and  either  sold  in 
that  condition,  or  else  the  bran  is  sifted  from  it ;  it  retains  the  gluten 
oatmeal. 

WHEAT  CRACKED. — A  palatable,  nourishing  and  highly  popu- 
lar article  of  diet,  and  a  valuable  addition  to  the  domestic  catalogue 
as  a  delicate  food  for  invalids  and  children,  and  especially  suitable 
for  the  breakfast  table.  For  its  nutritious  and  health-giving  qual- 
ities it  holds  a  place  in  the  same  rank  as  oatmeal,  and  is  highly  re- 
commended by  eminent  medical  practitioners. 

WHEAT  CRUSHED. — This  is  a  preparation  of  the  entire  wheat 
product,  which  has  come  into  quite  general  use.  The  wheat  is 
thoroughly  cleansed  and  purified  from  all  extraneous  admixture,  and 
prepared  in  such  a  manner  that  all  the  elements  of  the  grain  are  pre- 
served. It  is  said  to  be  a  favorite  food  with  people  of  sedentary 
habits. 

WHEAT  FLOUR.— This  is  the  kernel  or  grain  of  the  wheat, 
Divested  of  its  co'at  or  husk,  and  ground  into  a  fine  powder  ;  the  qual- 
ity depending  not  only  upon  the  quality  of  the  wheat  from  which  it 
was  made,  but  upon  the  method  of  grinding,  and  the  special  processes 
to  which  it  has  been  subjected.  The  process  adopted  with  the  ordi- 
nary flour  is  termed  Inw  milling,  in  which  it  is  cleansed  from  other 
seeds  or  detective  grain.  It  is  then  passed  through  the  bolting  appa- 
ratus, if  intended  for  the  higher  grades,  the  commercial  value  of  the 
product  being  finfilly  determined  by  the  amount  of  care  and  attention 


THE    GROCERS    COMPANION.  165 

which  has  been  given  to  it.  The  celebrated  new  process  flour  is  ob- 
tained by  slow  grinding,  subsequent  careful  bolting,  and,  in  many- 
cases,  even  a  regrinding,  which  renders  it  rich  in  gluten  and  com- 
mands for  it  the  highest  prices. 

SELF-RAISING  FLOUR — Is  made  by  mixing  with  the  flour  certain 
proportions  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  cream  of  tartar,  or  tartaric 
acid.  When  this  flour  is  moistened  and  made  into  dough,  the  acid 
reacts  upon  the  soda,  and  causes  the  same  effects  as  yeast,  only  much 
more  rapidly,  viz.,  the  rising  of  the  bread. 

Flour. is  frequently  adulterated  with  potato  starch,  white  corn 
flour,  rice  flour,  plaster  of  Paris,  chalk,  alum,  sulphate  of  copper,  etc. 
The  alum  is  used  to  cause  the  flour  to  absorb  a  larger  quantity  of 
water,  and  add  to  the  weight — potato  starch  serving  the  same  purpose. 
Sulphate  of  copper  is  used  to  impart  a  delicate  whiteness  to  the  bread — 
the  other  ingredients  named  being  simply  added  for  the  purpose  of 
increasing  the  weight  with  injurious  and  much  cheaper  articles. 

WHISKEY — Is  extensively  sold  by  grocers  in  all  our  towns 
and  cities,  and  is  distilled  in  this  country  from  barley,  Indian  corn, 
rye,  potatoes  and  turnips  ;  it  usually  contains  about  fifty  per  cent,  of 
alcohol.  Bourbon  whiskey  is  prepared  from  a  mixture  of  Indian  corn 
and  small  grain  with  about  ten  per  cent,  of  malt — Monongahela  being 
made  entirely  from  rye,  with  the  addition  of  ten  per  cent,  of  malt. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  cheaper  whiskeys  are  artificially  prepared 
from  the  raw  products  of  malt,  or  potato  spirits,  and  other  substances 
mixed  with  water,  creosote  being  added  to  give  it  the  whiskey  flavor. 
The  principal  manufactories  in  the  United  States  are  located  in  Illi- 
nois, Indiana,  Ohio,  Kentucky,  Pennsylvania  and  New  York.  The 
average  annual  manufacture  of  distilled  spirits  in  this  country  is  about 
70,000,000  gallons,  of  which  fully  200,000  gallons  are  exported. 
The  revenue  tax  on  proof  spirit  is  ninety  cents  per  gallon. 

WINE. — Wine  is,  strictly  speaking,  the  fermented  juice  of  the 
grape,  and  our  readers  can  judge  pretty  fairly  how  nearly  (or  rather 
how  far  from  this  natural  standard)  the  foreign  or  imported  wines 
can  justify  their  claim  to  this  interpretation.  Of  the  secrets  or  par- 
ticulars of  the  various  manufactures  called  by  this  name  we  will  say 
nothing,  simply  referring  to  those  of  American  production,  as  those 
in  which  we  are  most  interested.  Of  American  wines,  those  of  Cal- 
ifornia are  rapidly  outrivalling  those  of  the  Old  World,  on  account  of 
their  purity,  their  improved  treatment,  and  the  judicious  selection  of  the 
fruit.  In  some  portions  of  the  eastern  United  States,  large  quantities 
of  wine  are  made  from  the  juice  of  the  Catawba  grape ;  but,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  presence  of  a  great  proportion  of  malic  acid,  it  is  gen- 
erally considered  an  inferior  production.  The  production  of  wine  in 
the  United  States  averages  fully  4,500,000  gallons,  of  which  Califor- 
nia produces  from  fifty  to  fifty-five  per  cent. 


I6€  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

YEAST. — Throughout  the  entire  Union  the  manufacture  of 
home-made  bread  is  a  specialty,  and,  notwithstanding  the  great  in- 
crease in  bread  preparations  and  baking  powders,  the  sale  of  Yeast 
still  maintains  its  original  status,  in  the  form  of  Compressed  Yeast, 
which  was  originally  introduced  into  this  country  from  Holland.  Ita 
purity,  economy  and  convenience,  naturally  commend  its  use  to  all 
housekeepers  ;  but  it  would  be  invidious  and  superfluous  to  mention 
any  special  manufacture  when  all  are  excellent. 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  ETC. 


UNITED   STATES  MONEY. 

10  Mills make  one  cent. 

10  Cents "      one  dime. 

10  Dimes "      one  dollar. 

10  Dollars "     one  eagle. 


AVOIRDUPOIS   WEIGHT. 
By  this  weight  all  articles  in  the  grocer's  trade  are  bought  and  sold. 

27  11-32  Grains make  1  dram. 

16  Drams "      1  ounce. 

16  Ounces "      1  pound. 

25  Pounds "      1  quarter. 

4  Quarters  or  100  pounds "      1  hundred  weight. 

20  Hundred  weight "      1  ton. 

The  grain  avoirdupois,  though  never  used,  is  the  same  as  the  grain  in 
Troy  weight;  7,000  grains  make  the  Avoirdupois  pound,  and  5,760  grains 
the  Troy  pound. 


LIQUID  MEASURE. 
4    Gills make  1  pint. 


2    Pints . 

4  Quarts 

31i  Gallons  . . . 
63  Gallons 

2   Hogsheads 

2    Pipes 


1  quart. 
1  gallon. 
1  barrel. 
1  hogshead. 
1  pipe  or  butt. 
1  tun. 


Five  ounces  Avoirdupois  of  water  will  make  1  gill.  The  gallon  of 
water  should  contain  exactly  10  pounds  of  pure  water,  at  a  temperature 
of  62°  Fr. ,  the  barometer  being  at  30  inches. 


168  THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 

DRY  MEASURE. 

4  Gills make  1  pint. 

2  Pints "      1  quart. 

8  Quarts  . .' "      1  peck. 

4  Pecks  or  32  quarts "      1  bushel. 

8  Bushels "      1  quarter. 

The  legal  bushel  of  the  United  States  is  the  old  Winchester  measure 
of  2,150.42  cubic  inches.  The  Imperial  bushel  of  England  is  2,218.142 
cubic  inches;  so  that  32  English  bushels  are  about  equivalent  to  33  of 
ours. 


TROY  WEIGHT. 

24  Grains make  1  pennyweight  or     24  grains. 

20  Pennyweights "      1  ounce  or  480  grains. 

12  Ounces "      1  pound  or  6,760  grains. 


APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHT. 

20  Grains make  1  scruple. 

3  Scruples "      1  dram. 

8  Drams "      1  ounce. 

12  Ounces "     1  pound. 

45  Drops=l  teaspoonfull  or  a  fluid  drachm;  2  tablespoonfulls=l  oz. 


MEASURES   OF   SURFACE. 


144    Inches  .ma 

ke  1  square  foot. 
1  square  yard. 
1  rod,  perch  or  pole. 
1  square  rood. 
1  square  acre,  or  43,560  sq.  ft. 
1  square  acre. 
1  souare  mile. 

40    Square  Rods  

Gunter's  Chain  equal  to  22  yards  or  100  links. 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLE, 
units make  1  dozen. 


dozen  . . 
gross . . . 
things  . 
sheets  . . 
quires  . . 
reams  . . 
bundles. 


1  gross. 

1  great  gross. 

1  score. 

1  quke  of  paper. 

1  ream. 

1  bundle. 

1  bale. 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 


169 


100  pounds  

196  pounds  

200  pounds  

100  pounds  

14  pounds  

214  stones , 

8  pigs 

2  weys  (328  Ibs.) 
12  sacks  (39  cwt.) 

3  inches  

4  inches  

9  inches  

18  inches  

22  inches  (nearly) 

3  feet "... 


1  quintal  of  fish. 

1  barrel  of  flour. 

1  barrel  of  pork  or  beef. 

1  firkin  of  butter. 

1  stone  of  iron  or  lead. 

1  Pig- 

1  fother. 

1  sack  of  wool. 

1  last. 

1  palm. 

1  hand. 

1  span. 

1  cubit. 

1  sacred  cubit. 

1  common  pace. 

Pork,  full  weight,  should  contain  200  Ibs.,  but  the  standard  has  been 
reduced  to  190  Ibs. ;  pickled  beef,  hams  in  barrels,  306  and  220  Ibs. ;  clear 
sides  in  bulk,  in  boxes,  500  Ibs.,  and  in  hhds.  from  800  to  1000  Ibs. 


WEIGHTS  OF  ORIGINAL  PACKAGES. 

COFFEE. 

Lbs. 
Brazil,  bags,  old  style 160 

"  "  new  style 132 

Domingo,  bags 130 

Laguira,  •' 110 

Maracaibo,  " 120 

Ceylon  "  .150 

Manilla,  mats 70 

Jamaica,  packages 200 

Java  and  Singapore,  bags 130 

"  "  mats 60 

SUGAK. 

Lbs. 
Cuba,  hhds about  1,350 

"  boxes 400 

Domestic,  hhds 1,100 

Java,  baskets 50Q 

"  bags 60 

Manila,  bags 70 

East  India,  bags 150 

Brazil,  bags 150 

In  the  transportation  of  freights,  actual  weight  is  generally  given,  but 
when  that  cannot  be  done,  the  following  articles  are  estimated  as  follows : 

Ale  and  Beer 320  Ibs.  per  bbl. 

"  "     170  '  i  " 

"          "    100          •  4  " 

Apples,  dried 24  '      bu. 

•'       green 56  '       " 

"  "      150  '    bbL 


170 


THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 


Barley 48  per  bu. 

Beans,  white 60  "  " 

"      castor 46  "  " 

Beef 320  '  bbl. 

Bran 20  '  bu. 

Brooms 40  '  doz. 

Buckwheat 52  '  bu. 

Cider 350  '  bbl. 

Charcoal 22  '  bu. 

Clover  Seed 60 

Corn 56 

"    in  ear 70 

"    meal 48 

"      "      220  '  bbl. 

Eggs 200 

Fish 300 

Flax  Seed 56  '  bu. 

Flour 200  '  bbL 

Hemp  Seed 44  '  bu. 

High  Wines   350  "  bbl. 

Hungarian  Grass  Seed 45  "  bu. 

Lime 200  "  bbl. 

Malt 38  '  bu. 

Millet 45  ' 

Nails 108  '  keg. 

Oats 32  '  bu. 

Oil 400  •  bbl. 

Onions 67  '  bu. 

Peaches,  dried 33  "  " 

Pork 320  "  bbl. 

Potatoes,  common 150  "  " 

"                "        60  "  bu. 

"        sweet 55  '  " 

Rye 56  '  " 

Salt,  fine 56  '  " 

"     "    300  '  bbl. 

Salt  coarse 350 

"      "      200  '  sack. 

Timothy  seed 45  '  bu. 

Turnips 56 

Vinegar •. 350  '  bbl. 

Wheat 60  '  bu. 

Whiskey 350  '  bbl. 

One  ton  weight  is 2,000  Ibs. 


FOREIGN  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

REDUCED  TO  THE  STANDARD  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Aham,  in  Amsterdam 41  gallons. 

Almude,  in  Portugal 44  gallons. 

Almucle,  in  Madeira 4.68  gallons. 

Alqniere,  in  Madeira over  U  peck. 

Alquiere,  in  Portugal 1 1  to  nearly  1  k  pecks. 

Alquiere,  in  Bahia 1  busheL 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  171 

Alquiere,  in  Maranham 1$  bushels. 

Alquiere,  in  Rio  Janeiro  and  Pernambuco 1  to  li  bushels. 

Anna,  of  rice,  in  Ceylon 2GO  2-5  pounds. 

Arroba,  in  Portugal' and  Brazil 323  pounds. 

Arroba,  in  Spain  and  the  Argentine  Confederation. 25  pounds. 

Arroba,  in  Spain  (liquid  measure) 46  gallons. 

Arroba,  in  Havana 3.10  gallons. 

Arroba,  in  Malaga,  of  wine about  4  •  gallons. 

Arsheen,  in  Russia 28  inches. 

Bahar,  in  Batavia 3  to  44  piculs. 

Bale,  of  cinnamon,  in  Ceylon,  net 104 1  pounds. 

Barile,  in  Naples equals  about  1 1  gallons. 

Barde,  in  Leghorn,  of  wines 12.04  gallons. 

Candy,  Ceylon 545  pounds. 

Candy,  Bombay 5tiO  pounds. 

Candy,  Bombay  (grain) 358  pounds. 

Candy,  Bombay  (rice),  nearly  25  bushels 215.93  pounds. 

Candy,  Madras ." 500  pounds. 

Cantar,  in  Levant,  contains  44  oakes 118.80  pounds. 

Cantar,  in  Leghorn,  of  oil 88  pounds. 

Cantar,  in  Malta * 171-i  pounds. 

Cantar,  in  Naples 106  to  196  \  pounds. 

Cantar,  in  Sicily 175  to  192A  pounds. 

Carro,  in  Naples,  of  grain 52A  bushels. 

Cairo,  in  Naples,  of  wine 264  callous. 

Catty,  of  tea,  hi  China 1$  pounds. 

Cayang  or  Koyang,  in  Batavia 3.581  pounds. 

Chetwert,  in  Russia 595  bushels. 

Fenega,  in  Spain 1 ,575  bushels. 

Fenega,  Havana 1,123  bushels. 

Hectolitre,  in  France 2.84  bushels. 

Killog,  in  France  and  Netherlands 2.21  pounds. 

Last,  in  Amsterdam,  of  grain 85i  bushels. 

Last,  in  Bremen,  of  grain 80  bushels. 

Last,  in  Cadiz,  of  salt 74  4-5  bushels. 

Last,  in  Dantzic,  of  grain nearly  93  bushels. 

Last,  in  Flushing,  of  grain 90i  bushels. 

Last,  in  Hamburgh,  of  grain 89.04  bushels. 

Last,  in  Lubec,  of  grain over  91  bushels. 

Last,  in  Portugal,  of  salt 70  bushels. 

Last,  in  Rotterdam,  of  grain 85.136  bushels. 

Last,  in  Sweden  75  bushels. 

Last,  in  Utrecht,  of  grain over  59  bushels. 

Lispound,  in  Hamburg 16  pounds  5  ounces. 

Lispouud,  in  Holland 18  pounds  4  ounces. 

Mark,  Holland 9  ounces. 

Maud,  in  Calcutta 75  to  84  pounds. 

Maund,  Bengal 85.285  pounds. 

Maund,  Bengal  (Factory) 74.667  pounds. 

Mauud,  Bombay 28  pounds. 

Maund,  Madras 25  pounds. 

Mina,  in  Greece 2.205  pounds. 

Miuo,  in  Genoa,  of  Grain 3.43  bushels. 

Mount,  in  France 1  ton. 

Moy,  in  Lisbon 24  bushels. 

Moy,  in  Oporto 30  bushels. 

Moyo,  in  Portugal contains  over  23  bushels. 


172 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 


Moke,  in  Smyrna 23  pounds. 

Ohm,  Hamburg 38.28  gallons. 

Orna,  in  Trieste,  of  wine 14.94  gallons. 

Orna,  of  oil 17  gallons. 

Oalmo,  in  Naples is  a  little  over  10  incljes. 

Pfiiml,  Austria  and  Bavaria 1,235  pounds. 

Pfund,  Bremen 1.99  pounds. 

Pfuncl,  Denmark 1.102  pounds. 

Pfund,  Hamburg 1.0G8  pounds. 

Pond,  Netherlands  (Metric) 2.505  pounds. 

Punt,  Russia 9.028  pounds. 

Pecul,  in  Batavia  and  Madras 135.68  pounds. 

Pecul,  in  China  and  Japan - 1334  pounds. 

Pipe,  in  Spain,  of  wine 160  to  164  gallons. 

Pood,  in  Russia is  equal  to  nearly  36  pounds  2  ounces. 

Quarter,  in  England,  of  grain 8  bushels. 

Quintal,  in  Portugal 89.05  pounds. 

Quintal,  in  Smyrna 139.48  pounds. 

Quintal,  in  Spain 96  pounds. 

Quintal,  in  Turkey 167  pounds  3  ounces. 

Rottoli,  in  Portugal 12  pounds  4  ounces. 

Rottoli,  in  Genoa 24  pounds. 

Rottoli,  in  Leghorn 23  pounds. 

Salma,  in  Sicily,  of  grain 9.77  bushels. 

Salma,  in  Malta,  of  grain 8.22  bushels. 

Scnefl'el,  in  Germany varies  from  14  to  nearly  3  bushels. 

Shippound,  in  Hamburg  and  Denmark 331  pounds. 

Shippouud,  in  Holland 368  pounds  4  ounces. 

Staro,  in  Trieste 2f  bushels. 

Tael,  in  China 1 J  ounces. 

Vara,  in  Rio  Janeiro nearly  14  yards. 

Vara,  in  Spain 100  are  equal  to  920  yards. 

W erst,  in  Russia 350|  feet. 


WEIGHTS  OF  PRODUCE. 

The  standard  weight  for  Corn,  Oats,  Potatoes  and  other  articles  of 
produce  sold  by  weight,  is  as  follows : — 

Beans,  medium,  per  bushel 62  pounds. 

Beans,  pea  and  marrow,  per  bushel 62 

Beans,  yellow  eye,  per  bushel 62 

Beans,  red  kidney,  per  bushel 58 

Rye,  per  bushel 56 

Barley,  per  bushel 48 

Buckwheat,  per  bushel 48 

Clover  Seed,  per  bushel 60 

Corn,  per  bushel 56 

Oats,  per  bushel 32 

Herd's-grass,  per  bushel 45 

Red  Top,  per  bag 50 

Flaxseed,  per  bushel 65 

Peas,  per  bushel 65 

Potatoes,  per  bushel 90 

Turnips,  per  bushel 90 

Wheat,  per  bushel 60 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  ITS 

RAPID    PROGRESS     OF    MARKING    GOODS    AT    ANY    DESIRED 
PER   CENT.   PROFIT. 

Retail  merchants,  in  buying  goods  by  wholesale,  buy  a  great  many  ar- 
ticles by  the  dozen,  such  as  boots  and  shoes,  hats  and  caps,  and  notions  of 
various  kinds ;  now  the  merchant,  in  buying,  for  instance,  a  dozen  hats, 
knows  exactly  what  one  of  these  hats  will  retail  for  in  the  market  where 
he  deals ;  and,  unless  he  is  a  good  accountant,  it  will  often  take  him  some. 
time  to  determine  whether  he  can  afford  to  purchase  the  dozen  hats  :uid 
make  a  living  profit  by  selling  them  by  the  single  hat;  and  in  buying  his 
goods  by  auction,  as  the  merchant  often  does,  he  has  not  time  to  make  the 
calculation  before  the  goods  are  bid  off.  He  therefore  loses  the  chance  of 
making  good  bargains  by  being  afraid  to  bid  at  random ;  or  if  he  bids,  and 
the, goods  are  cried  off,  he  may  have  made  a  poor  bargain,  by  bidding  thus 
at  a  venture.  It  then  becomes  a  useful  and  practical  problem  to  determine 
INSTANTLY  what  per  cent,  he  Avould  gain  if  he  retailed  the  hat  at  a  cei'tain 
price,  to  tell  what  an  article  should  retail  for  to  make  a  profit  of  20  per- 
cent. 

RULE. — Divide  what  the  articles  cost  per  dozen  by  10,  which  is  done 
by  removing  the  decimal  point  one  place  to  the  left. 

For  histance — if  hats  cost  $17. 50  per  dozen,  remove  the  decimal  point 
one  place  to  the  left,  making  $1.75,  what  they  should  be  sold  for  apiece  to- 
gain  20  per  cent,  on  the  cost.  If  they  cost  $31.00  per  dozen,  they  should 
be  sold  at  $3. 10  apiece,  etc.  We  take  20  per  cent,  as  the  basis,  for  the  fol- 
lowing reasons,  viz. ,  because  we  can  determine  instantly  by  simply  remov- 
ing the  decimal  point,  without  changing  a  figure,  and,  if  the  goods  would 
not  bring  at  least  20  per  cent,  profit  in  the  home  market,  the  merchant 
could  not  afford  to  purchase,  and  would  look  for  cheaper  goods. 

The  reason  for  the  above  rule  is  obvious,  fof  if  we  divide  the  cost  of 
a  dozen  by  12,  we  have  the  cost  of  a  single  article;  then  if  we  wish  to 
make  twenty  per  cent,  on  the  cost  (cost  being  1-1  or  5-5),  we  add  the  per 
cent.,  which  is  1-5,  to  the  5-5,  making  6-5  or  12-10;  then  as  we  multiply 
the  cost,  divided  by  12,  by  the  12-10,  to  find  at  what  price  one  must  be 
sold  to  gain  20  per  cent.,  it  is  evident  that  the  12s  will  cancel  and  leave  the 
cost  of  a  dozen  to  be  divided  by  10 — to  do  this  remove  the  decimal  point 
one  place  to  the  left. 

EXAMPLE  1. — If  I  buy  2  dozen  caps  at  $7.50  per  dozen,  what  shall  I 
retail  them  at  to  make  20  per  cent.?  Aus.  75  cents. 

EXAMPLE  2. — When  a  merchant  retails  a  vest  at  §4.50,  and  makes  20- 
per  cent.,  what  did  he  pay  per  dozen?  Ans.  $45. 

EXAMPLE  3. — At  what  price  should  I. retail  a  pair  of  boots  that  cost 
$85  per  dozen,  to  make  iO  per  cent.?  Ans.  $8.50. 

Now,  as  removing  the  decimal  point  one  place  to  the  left,  on  the  cost 
of  a  dozen  articles,  gives  the  selling  price  of  a  single  one  with  20  per  cent, 
added  to  the  cose,  and,  as  the  cost  of  any  article  is  100  per  cent.,  it  is  ob- 
vious that  the  selling  price  would  20  per  cent,  more,  or  120  per  cent. ; 
hence,  to  find  50  per  cent,  profit,  which  would  make  the  selling  price  15i> 
per  cent.,  we  would  first  find  120  per  cent.,  then  add  30  per  cent,  by  in- 
creasing it  one- fourth  itself;  for  35  per  cent.,  increase  it  one-eighth  itself, 
etc  lieuce,  to  mark  an  article  at  any  per  cent,  profit,  we  find  the  fol- 
lowing : — 

GENERAL  RULE. — First  find  20  per  cent,  profit  by  removing  the  deci- 
mal point  one  place  to  the  left  on  the  price  the  articles  cost  per  dozen ; 
then,  as  20  per  cent,  profit  is  120  per  cent.,  add  to  or  subtract  from  this 
amount  the  fractional  part  that  the  required  per  cent.,  added  to  100,  is- 
more  or  less  than  120. 


171 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 


Merchants,  in  marking  goods,  generally  take  a  per  cent,  that  is  an 
aliquot  part  of  100,  as  25,  33  1-3,  50,  etc.  The  reason  they  do  this  is  be- 
cause it  makes  it  much  easier  to  add  such  a  per  cent,  to  the  cost;  for  in- 
stance, a  merchant  could  mark  almost  a  dozen  articles  at  50  per  cent,  profit 
in  the  time  it  would  take  him  to  mark  one  at  49  per  cent.  The  following 
is  arranged  for  the  convenience  of  business  men  in  marking  the  prices  of 
all  articles  bought  by  the  dozen  : — 

To  make  20  per  cent,  remove  the  point  one  place  to  the  left, 


80 

60 

50 

44 

40 

37 

35 

33  1-3 

32 

30 

28 

26 

25 

12  1-2 

162-3 

183-4 


and  add  1-2  itself. 

1-3 

1-4 

1-5 

1-6 

1-7 

1-8 

1-9 

1-10 

1-12 

1-15 

1-20 

1-24 
subtract  1-16 

1-36 

1-96 


If  I  buy  a  dozen  shirts  for  $28,  what  shall  I  retail  them  for  to  make 
50  per  cent.?  Ans.  $3.50. 

EXPLANATION. — Remove  the  point  one  place  to  the  left,  and  add  1-4 
Itself.  t 


MARKING  GOODS. 

In  marking  goods  it  is  usual  with  merchants  to  make  use  of  a  pri- 
vate mark,  phrase,  or  key-word,  to  designate  the  cost  and  selling  price 
of  their  goods,  the  object  being  to  conceal  these  points  from  all  except 
their  own  salesmen.  The  following  words  tmd  phrases  present  a  choice 
from  which  to  make  a  selection : — 

GAS  FIXTURE.      FISH  TACKLE.      BROWN  SUGAR. 
BLACK  HORSE.      CASH  PROFIT.      NOW  BE  SHARP. 
MISFORTUNE.       SO  FRIENDLY.     ELUCIDATOR. 
IMPORTANCE.       GAINFUL  JOB.      OF  INDUSTRY. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  each  word  or  phrase  contains  ten  letters.no 
two  alike,  the  object  being  to  use  letters  instead  of  figures  in  marking  the 
goods.  For  instance,  take  the  phrase 

GAS  FIXTURE. 
123  4567890 

In  marking  the  cost  and  selling  price  on  a  ticket,  we  assume  that  the 
cost  is  $3.25  and  the  selling  price  $4.37 ;  this  would  be  represented  by  the 
<lumb  letters  s  a  i — fs  t.  The  cost  price  is  generally  placed  uppermost  on 

the  tag,  the  selling  price  below  it,  thus  :  jji.  An  extra  letter,  styled  a  re- 
peater, is  used  to  obviate  the  repetition  of  a  letter  or  figure,  as  well  as  to 
prevent  the  disclosure  of  the  private  mark ;  for  instance,  instead  of  writing 
336  by  the  key-word,  which  would  be  s  x  x,  use  as  a  repeater  the  letter  o, 

and  make  it  read  sxo.    Fractions  may  be  written  thus  :  45Gl=/i'  *— r~. 


THE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 


175 


METRIC   SYSTEM  OF  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

FRENCH  CUBIC  OR  SOLID  MEASURE   (UNITED  STATES  STANDARD). 

Cubic  Inches. 

1  Millitre  or  cubic  centimetre =.0610165 

10  millitres  make  1  centilitre =  .610165 


10  centilitres 
10  decilitres 
10  litres 

10  decalitres 
10  hectolitres 
10  kilolitres 


1  decilitre =  6.10165 

1  litre =  61.0165 

1  decalitre : =  610.165 

Cubic  feet. 

1  hectolitre =  3.53105 

1  kilolitre  or  cubic  metre =  35.3105 

1  myriolitre =  353.105 


The  Litre  is  the  unit  of  capacity  of  both  Liquid  and  Dry  Measure. 


FRENCH   WEIGHTS    (UNITED   STATES  STANDARD). 

Grains  avoir. 

1  milligramme =.01543316 

10  milligrammes  make  1  centigramme =  .  1543316 


1  decigramme =  1 .543316 

1  GRAMME ==  15.43316 

Pounds  avoir. 

1  decagramme =.02204737 

1  hectogramme =  .2204737 

1  KILOGRAMME 

1  myriogramme 

1  quintal 

1  tonne 

The  gramme  is  the  basis  of  the  French  weights,  and  consists  of  a  cubic 
centimetre  of  distilled  water. 


10  centigrammes 
10  decigrammes 

10  grammes 
10  decagrammes 
10  hectogrammes 
10  kilogrammes 
10  myriogramnies 
10  quintals 


2.204737 
22.04737 
2204737 
2204.737 


ALIQUOT  PARTS  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  AND  ONE  THOUSAND. 

Merchants  in  selling  goods  generally  make  the  price  of  an  article 
some  aliquot  part  of  100,  as  in  selling  sugar  at  12£  cents  per  lb.,  or  eight 
Ibs.  for  $1.00;  or  in  selling  calico  for  16|  cents  per  yard,  or  six  yards  for 
$1.00,  etc.  The  following  table  will  be  found  valuable  for  all  such  calcu- 
lations : 


12  1-2  is  1-8  part  of  100. 
25  is  1-4  part  of  100. 
37  1-2  is  3-8  part  of  100. 
50  is  4-8  or  1-2  of  100. 
62  1-2  is  5-8  part  of  100. 
75  is  6-8  or  3-4  part  of  100. 
87  1-2  is  7-8  part  100. 
6  1-4  is  1-16  part  of  100. 
18  3-4  is  3-1G  pact  of  100. 
31  1-4  Is  5-16  part  of  100. 


8  1-3  is  1-12  part  of  100. 

16  2-3  is  2-12  or  1-6  part  of  100. 

33  1-3  is  4-12  or  1-3  part  of  100. 

GG  2-3  is  8-12  or  2-3  part  of  100. 

83  1-3  is  10-12  or  5-6  part  of  100. 
125  is  1-8  part  of  1000. 
250  is  2-8  or  1-4  part  of  1000. 
375  is  3-8  part  of  1000. 
625  is  5-8  part  of  1000. 
875  is  7-8  part  of  1000. 


WATER  IN  DIFFERENT  WOODS. 

The  percentage  of  water  in  different  woods  is  as  follows : — 
Alder  has  41.6  per  cent.;  Ash,  28.7;  Birch,  30.8;  Elm,  44.5;  Horse- 
chestnut,  38.2;  Larch,  48.6;  Mountain  Ash,  28.3;  Oak,  34.7;  Pine,  39.7; 
Red  Beech,  31J.7;    Red  Pine,  45.2;  White  Oak,  36.2;  White  Pine,  37.1; 
White  Poplar,  50.6. 


176  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

BUSINESS  LAW. 

If  a  note  is  lost  or  stolen,  it  does  not  release  the  maker ;  he  must  pay 
it,  if  the  consideration  for  which  it  was  given  and  the  amount  can  be 
proven. 

Notes  bear  interest  only  when  so  stated. 

Principals  are  responsible  for  the  acts  of  their  agents. 

Each  individual  in  a  partnership  is  responsible  for  the  whole  amount 
of  the  debts  of  the  firm,  except  in  cases  of  special  partnership. 

Ignorance  of  the  law  excuses  no  one. 

The  law  compels  no  one  to  do  impossibilities. 

An  agreement  without  consideration  is  void. 

A  note  made  on  Sunday  is  void. 

Contracts  made  ou  Sunday  cannot  be  enforced. 

A  note  by  a  minor  is  void. 

A  contract  made  with  a  minor  is  void. 

A  contract  made  with  a  lunatic  is  void. 

A  note  obtained  by  fraud,  or  from  a  person  in  a  state  of  intoxication, 
cannot  be  collected. 

It  is  a  fraud  to  conceal  a  fraud. 

Signatui'es  made  with  a  lead  pencil  are  good  in  law. 

A  receipt  for  money  is  not  always  conclusive. 

The  acts  of  one  partner  bind  all  the  rest. 

"  Value  received"  is  usually  written  in  a  note,  and  should  be,  but  is 
not  absolutely  necessary.  If  not  written,  it  is  presumed  by  the  law,  or 
may  be  supplied  by  proof. 

The  maker  of  an  "  accommodation  "  bill  or  note  (one  for  which  he 
has  received  no  consideration,  having  lent  his  name  or  credit  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  the  holder)  is  not  bound  to  the  person  accommodated, 
but  is  bound  to  all  other  parties,  precisely  as  if  there  was  a  good  consid- 
eration. 

No  consideration  is  sufficient  in  law,  if  it  be  illegal  in  its  nature. 

Checks  or  drafts  must  be  presented  for  payment  without  unreasonable 
delay. 

Checks  or  drafts  should  be  presented  during  business  hours ;  but  in 
this  country,  except  in  the  case  of  banks,  the  time  extends  through  the 
day  and  evening. 

If  the  drawee  of  a  check  or  draft  has  changed  his  residence,  the  holder 
must  use  due  or  reasonable  diligence  to  find  him. 

If  one  who  holds  a  check  as  payee  or  otherwise,  transfers  it  to 
another,  he  has  a  right  to  insist  that  the  check  be  presented  that  day,  or, 
at  farthest,  on  the  day  following. 

A  note  indorsed  in  blank  (the  name  of  the  indorser  only  written)  is 
transferable  by  delivery,  the  same  as  if  made  payable  to  bearer. 

If  the  time  of  payment  of  a  note  is  not  inserted,  it  is  held  payable  on 
demand. 

The  time  of  payment  of  a  note  must  not  depend  upon  a  contingency ; 
the  promise  must  be  absolute. 

A  bill  may  be  written  upon  any  paper  or  substitute  for  it,  either  with 
ink  or  pencil. 

The  payee  should  be  distinctly  named  in  the  note,  unless  it  is  payable 
to  bearer. 

An  indorsee  has  a  right  of  action  against  all  whose  names  were  on  the 
bill  when  he  received  it. 

If  the  letter  containing  a  protest  of  non-payment  be  put  into  the  post 
office,  any  miscarriage  does  not  affect  the  party  giving  notice. 


THE    GROCERS    COMPANION.  Ill 

Notice  of  protest  may  he  sent  either  to  the  place  of  business  or  of  res- 
idence of  the  party  notified. 

The  holder  of  a  note  may  give  notice  of  protest  either  to  all  the  pre- 
vious indorsers  or  only  to  one  of  them ;  in  case  of  the  latter  he  must  select 
the  last  indorser,  and  the  last  must  givn  notice  to  the  last  before  him,  and 
so  on.  Each  endorser  must  send  notice  the  same  day  or  the  day  follow- 
ing. Neither  Sunday  or  legal  holiday  is  to  be  counted  in  reckoning  the 
time  in  which  notice  is  to  be  given. 

The  loss  of  a  bill  or  note  is  not  sufficient  excuse  for  not  giving  notice 
of  protest. 

If  two  or  more  persons  as  partners  are  jointly  liable  on  a  note  or  bill, 
due  notice  to  one  of  them  is  sufficient. 

If  a  note  or  bill  is  transferred  as  security,  or  even  as  payment  of  a 
pre-existing  debt,  the  debt  revives  if  the  bill  or  note  be  dishonored. 

An  indorsement  may  be  written  on  the  face  or  back. 

An  indorser  may  prevent  his  own  liability  to  be  sued  by  writing 
"  without  recourse,"  or  similar  words. 

All  claims  which  do  not  rest  upon  a  seal  or  judgment,  must  be  sued 
within  six  years  from  the  time  when  they  arise. 

Part  payment  of  a  debt  which  has  passed  the  time  of  statutory  limita- 
tion revives  the  whole  debt,  and  the  claim  holds  good  for  another  period 
of  six  years  from  the  date  of  such  partial  payment. 

A  verbal  promise  to  pay,  made  without  conditions,  is  generally  held 
as  sufficient  to  revive  a  claim  otherwise  shut  out  by  the  law  of  limitation. 

If,  when  a  debt  is  due,  the  debtor  is  out  of  the  State,  the  "  six  years  " 
do  not  begin  to  run  until  he  returns.  If  he  afterward  leave  the  State,  the 
time  forward  counts  the  same  as  if  he  remained  in  the  State. 

An  *ral  agreement  must  be  proved  by  evidence.  A  written  agreement 
proves  itself.  The  law  prefers  written  to  oral  evidence,  because  of  its 
precision. 

No  evidence  may  be  introduced  to  contradict  or  vary  a  written  con- 
tract ;  but  it  may  be  received  in  order  to  explain  it,  when  such  contract  is 
in  need  of  explanation. 


TO  FIND  THE  CAPACITY  OF  BINS,  BOXES,  ETC. 

Multiply  together  the  length,  breadth,  and  height  of  the  bin  or  box 
expressed  in  inches  or  feet ;  the  product  will  be  the  capacity  expressed  in 
cubic  inches  or  feet.  To  get  the  capacity  in  bushels,  divide  the  whole 
number  of  cubic  inches  in  the  box  by  2150.  For  gallons,  divide  the  whole 
number  of  cubic  inches  by  231.  For  coal,  divide  the  whole  number  of 
cubic  feet  by  32  for  hard,  or  35  for  soft  coal — the  quotient  will  be  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  bin  in  tons. 

A  standard  bushel  contains  2150.42  cubic  inches. 

A  gallon  (wine  measure)  contains  231  cubic  inches. 

A  ton  of  coal  (anthracite  or  hard)  occupies  about  32  cubic  feet. 

A  ton  of  coal  (bituminous  or  soft)  occupies  about  35  cubic  feet. 

A  box  24  by  16  inches,  22  deep,  contains  1  barrel. 

A  box  10  by  16  1-2  inches,  8  deep,  contains  1  bushel. 

A  box  8  by  8  1-2  inches,  8  deep,  contains  1  peck. 

A  box  4  by  4  inches,  4  1-2  deep,  contains  half  peck. 

A  box  4  by  4  inches,  4-10  deep,  contains  1  quart. 


178 


TEE    GROCERS    COMPANION. 


HOW  TO   CONDUCT  A    SUCCESSFUL  BUSINESS. 

That  short  credits  and  small  profits  form  the  golden  rule  for  success  in 
trade,  may  be  seen  from  the  following  table,  exhibiting  the  amounts  real- 
ized for  $100,  at  various  percentages  during  various  periods : — 


Am't  at 

3  pr.  ct. 

If  turned  over  every  3  mouths,  $326.20 


G 
8 
12 
2 
6 


years, 


180.61 
155.79 
134.39 
115.92 
106.09 


Am't  at 

5  pr.  ct. 

$703.99 

265.32 

207.89 

162.88 

127.62 

110.25 


Am't  at 

8  pr.  ct. 

$2172.45 

466.09 

317.21 

215.89 

146.93 

116.64 


Am't  at 

10  pr.  ct. 

$4525.92 

672.75 

417.72 

259.37 

161.05 

121.00 


TENSILE   STKENGH   OF   DIFFERENT  KINDS   OF  WOOD, 

SHOWING     THE     WEIGHT     OR     POWEU     REQUIRED     TO     TEAR    ASUNDER    ONE 


SQUARE    INCH. 
Lbs. 


Lance 23,000 

Locust 25,000 

Mahogany 21,000 

Box 20,000 

African  Oak 14,500 

Bay 14,500 

Teak 14,000 

Cedar 14,000 

Ash 14,000 

Oak,  seasoned 13,600 

Elm 13,400 

Sycamore 13,000 

Willow 13,000 

Christiana  Deal 12,400 

Spanish  Mahogany 12,000 


Lbs. 


Pitch  Pine 12,000 

White  Pine  (American) 11,800 

White  Oak  "  11,500 

Lignum  Vitae 11,800 

Beech 11,500 

Chestnut  (sweet) 10,500 

Maple 10,500 

White  Spruce 10,2'JU 

English  Oak 10,000 

Pear 9,800 

Larch 9,500 

Mahogany  (Spanish) 8,000 

Walnut 7,800 

Poplar 7,000 

Cypress 6,000 


COMPARATIVE  YIELD   OF   VARIOUS   VEGETABLES. 

PRODUCTIONS  IN   POUNDS   WEIGHT    PER   ACRE. 


Lbs.  per  Acre. 
442 


Hops 

Wheat 1.260 

Barley 1,600 

Oats  .' 

Peas 

Beau 2,000 

Plums 2,000 


Cherries 2,000 


Lba.  per  Acre. 

Grass 7,000 

Carrots 6,800 

Potatoes 7,500 

1,840  |  Apples 8,000 

1,920  j  Turnips 8,420 

Cinque-foil  Grass 9,600 

Vetches  (Green) 9,800 


Cabbages 10,900 


Parsnips 11,200 

Mangel  Wurzel 22,000 


Onions 2.800 

Hay ' 4,000 

Pears 5,000 

One  acre  will  produce  224  Ibs.  mutton,  186  Ibs.  beef,  2900  Ibs.  milk, 
300  Ibst  butter,  and  200  Ibs.  cheese.  A  fair  crop  of  potatoes,  from  16  bush- 
els of  seed,  is  340  bushels. 


THE    GROCERS    COMPANION.  179 

HOMESTEAD  AND  OTHER  PROPERTY  EXEMPTIONS. 

COMPILED  FROM  THE  REVISED  STATUTES  AND   SESSION  LAWS  OF  THE  SEVERAL 

STATES. 

ALABAMA. — Real  estate  exemption :  160  acres  with  house  in  country, 
or  lot  and  dwelling  to  value  of  $2,000  in  city.  Personal  property  exemp- 
tion :  to  amount  of  $1,000. 

ARKANSAS. — Real  estate  :  160  acres  in  country,  or  city  lot  with  improve- 
ments to  value  of  $5,000.  Personal  property :  to  amount  of  $2,000. 

CALIFORNIA. — Real  estate  :  homestead  to  value  of  $5,000.  Personal 
property  :  $200  furniture,  and  a  multitude  of  special  articles. 

COLORADO. — Real  estate  :  not  over  $2,000.  Personal  property :  tools, 
books,  stock  in  trade  to  amount  of  $300,  and  various  articles. 

CONNECTICUT. — No  real  estate  exemption.  Personal  property :  $300  in 
library,  necessary  clothing  and  furniture. 

DELAWARE. — No  real  estate  exemption.  Personal  property :  wearing 
apparel,  library,  tools  and  $200  additional  property. 

FLORIDA. — Real  estate :  160  acres  of  land  in  country,  or  half  acre  and 
residence  in  town.  Personal  property :  to  amount  of  $1,000, 

GEORGIA. — Real  estate  :  homestead,  value  in  specie,  $2,000.  Personal 
property:  value  iu  specie,  $1.000. 

ILLINOIS. — Real  estate:  residence  worth  $1,000.  Personal  property : 
$100  furniture,  stock  or  tools,  clothing,  library,  and  $100  in  other  prop- 
erty. 

INDIANA. — Real  estate :  $700  real  or  personal,  or  both.  Personal 
property  :  $300  real  or  personal,  or  both. 

IOWA. — Real  estate :  40  acres  in  country,  or  quarter  acre  with  house 
•]  11  town,  all  worth  $500.  Personal  property:  $100  furniture,  also  cloth- 
ing, tools,  farm  animals,  etc. ;  $1,200  printing  press  and  type  for  printer. 

KANZAS. — Real  estate  :  160  acres  in  country,  or  one  acre  with  improve- 
ments in  town.  Personal  property:  $5,000  furniture,  library,  clothing, 
tools,  farm»animals,  $300  farming  utensils,  $400  stock  in  trade. 

KENTUCKY. — Real  estate  :  land  with  dwelling  to  value  of  $1,000.  Per- 
sonal property  :  $100  furniture,  clothing  and  domestic  animals. 

LOUISIANA. — Real  estate:  160  acres  of  land,  with  buildings,  etc., 
amounting  to  $2,000,  with  personal  property. 

MAINE. — Real  estate :  land  and  dwelling,  valued  at  $500.  Personal 
property :  $50  furniture,  $150  library,  $300  farm  animals,  clothing,  tools, 
<>tc. 

MARYLAND. — No  real  estate  exempted.  Personal  property :  necessary 
tools,  apparel,  books,  etc. 

MASSACHUSETTS. — Real  estate :  homestead  to  value  of  $800.  Personal 
property :  $100  furniture,  $50  library,  clothing,  animals,  stock  and  mate- 
rials, $100. 

MICHIGAN. — Real  estate :  40  acres  in  country,  or  city  lot  and  residence 
to  value  $1,500.  Personal  property:  $250  furniture,  $250  stock  in  trade, 
§150  books,  farm  animals  and  minor  articles. 

MINNESOTA.— Real  estate :  80  acres  and  dwelling  in  country,  or  lot  and 
house  in  town.  Personal  property  :  $500  furniture,  $400  tools  or  stock  in 
trade,  $300  funning  utensils,  library,  clothing. 

MISSISSIPPI./— Real  estate  :  M.I  acres  in  county,  or  $2,000  town  property, 
including  homestead.  Sundry  personal  effects. 

MISSOURI. — Real  estate  :  160  acres,  worth  $1,500  in  country,  or  build- 
ings in  city  to  value  of  $1,500  to  $3,000.  $300  worth  of  personal  property. 

NEBRASKA. — Real  estate:  16u  acres,  with  improvements.  Peisonal 
property :  $500  exempted  when  no  real  estate  is  owned. 


180  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

NEVADA. — Real  estate  to  the  amount  of  $5,000.  Personal  property  r 
01,500  exempted. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. — Heal  estate :  homestead  Avorth  $500.  Personal 
property :  $100  furniture,  $200  in  library,  $100  in  tools,  $50  in  fuel  and 
provisions,  clothing,  domestic  animals. 

NEW  JERSEY. — Real  estate  to  amount  of  $1,000.  Personal  property  to 
amount  of  $200. 

NEW  YORK. — Real  estate :  homestead  to  value  of  $1000,  Personal 
property  :  $25  mechanics'  tools,  furniture,  instruments,  library,  etc. 

NOKTII  CAROLINA. — Real  estate  to  value  of  $1,000.  Personal  property 
to  value  of  $500. 

OHIO. — Real  estate  to  amount  of  $1,000.  Personal  property  :  clothing, 
bedding,  and  $500  additional  exemption,  if  no  real  estate  is  owned. 

OREGON. — No  real  estate  exemption.  Personal  property  :  $300  furni- 
ture, $100  clothing,  $400  tools,  etc.,  $50  for  each  member  of  family,  farm 
animals. 

PENNSYLVANIA. — No  real  estate  exemption.     $300  in  personal  property. 

RHODE  ISLAND. — No  real  estate  exemption.  Personal  property :  cloth- 
ing, cow  and  hog,  $200  furniture,  $50  tools,  etc.,  of  profession. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. — Real  estate :  homestead  worth  $1,000.  Personal 
property  :  clothing,  $500  furniture,  etc. 

TENNESSEE. — Real  estate:  homestead  worth  $1,000.  $500  personal 
property. 

TEXAS. — Real  estate :  200  acres  with  house  in  country,  or  lot  and  resi- 
dence worth  $5,000  in  town.  Personal  property  :  $500  furniture,  horse, 
saddle  and  bridle,  clothing,  books,  animals  and  one  year's  provisions. 

VERMONT. — Real  estate :  homestead  worth  $500  and  growing  crops. 
Personal  property :  clothing,  furniture,  farm  animals  and  sundry  stores, 
$200  in  teams,  $200  professional  library. 

VIRGINIA. — $2,000  in  real  or  personal  property. 

WEST  VIRGINIA. — Real  estate  :  homestead  worth  $1,000.  $500  worth 
personal  property. 

WISCONSIN. — Real  estate :  40  acres  with  house  in  country,  or  house 
and  quarter  acre  in  town.  Personal  property :  $200  furniture,  farm  ani- 
mals, $50  farm  tools,  $200  mechanics'  tools,  $200  professional  library. 


INTEREST  RULES. 

FOUR  PER  CENT. — Multiply  the  principal  by  the  number  of  days  to 
run;  separate  the  right-hand  figure  from  product,  and  divide  by  9. 

FIVE  PER  CENT — Multiply  by  number  of  days,  and  divide  by  72. 

Six  PER  CENT. — Multiply  by  number  of  days;  separate  right-hand 
figure,  and  divide  by  G. 

SEVEN  AND  THREE-TENTHS  PER  CENT.— Multiply  by  number  of  days, 
and  double  the  amount  so  obtained.  On  $100  the  interest  is  just  2  cents 
per  day. 

EIGHT  PER  CENT. — Multiply  by  number  of  days,  and  divide  by  45. 

NINE  PER  CENT.— Multiply  by  number  of  days ;  separate  right-hand 
figure,  and  divide  by  4. 

TEN  PER  CENT. — Multiply  by  number  of  days,  and  divide  by  36. 

TWELVE  PER  CENT — Multiply  by  number  of  days;  separate  right- 
hand  figure,  and  divide  by  3. 

FIFTEEN  PER  CENT. — Multiply  by  number  of  days,  and  divide  by  24. 

EIGHTEEN  PER  CENT. — Multiply  by  number  of  days ;  separate  right- 
hand  figure,  and  divide  by  2. 

TWENTY  PER  CENT. — Multiply  by  number  of  days,  and  divide  by  18. 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 


181 


LEGAL  HOLIDAYS  IN  VARIOUS   STATES. 

INDEPENDENCE  DAT  (July  4)  and  CHRISTMAS  DAY  (December  25),  to- 
gether with  THANKSGIVING  DAY  (usually  last  Thursday  in  November),  are 
lega  i  holidays  in  all  States. 

NEW  YEAR'S  DAY  (January  1),  in  all  States  except  Arkansas  Dela- 
ware, Georgia,  Kentucky,  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Hew  Hampshire,  North 
Carolina,  Rhode  Island  and  South  Carolina. 

WASHINGTON'S  BIRTHDAY  (February  22),  in  all  States  except  Alabama, 
Arkansas,  Florida,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Maine,  Missouri,  North 
Carolina,  Ohio,  Oregon,  Tennessee  and  Texas. 

GENERAL  ELECTION  DAY  (generally  on  Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in 
November),  in  California,  Maine.  Missouri,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Ore- 
gon, South  Carolina  and  Wisconsin. 

DECORATION  DAY  (May  30),  in  Colorado,  Connecticut,  Maine,  Michi- 
gan, New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island, 
Massachusetts  and  Vermont. 

GOOD  FRIDAY,  in  Florida,  Louisiana,  Minnesota  and  Pennsylvania. 

SHROVE  TUESDAY,  in  Louisiana  and  cities  of  Mobile,  Montgomery  and 

Selma,  Alabama. 

• 

MEMORIAL  DAY,  in  Georgia. 

ANNIVERSARY  OF  BATTLE  OK  NEW  ORLEANS  (Januarys),  LINCOLN'S 
BIRTHDAY  (February  12),  FIREMEN'S  ANNIVERSARY,  in  Louisiana. 

ANNIVERSARY  OP  TEXAN  INDEPENDENCE  (March  2),  and  BATTLE  or 
SAN  JACINTO  (April  21),  in  Texas. 


PAINTING. 


1  gallon  priming  color  will  cover  50  superficial  yards. 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 


white  zinc 
white  paint 
lead  color 
black  paint 
stone  color 
yellow  paint 
blue  color 
green  paint 
bright  emer.  green 
bronze  green 


50 
44 
50 
50 
44 
44 
45 
45 
25 
45 


One  pound  of  paint  will  cover  about  4  superficial  yards  the  first  coat, 
and  about  0  yards  each  additional  coat.  One  pound  of  putty  for  stopping 
every  20  yards.  One  gallon  of  tar  and  1  pound  of  pitch  will  cover  12  yards 
superficial  the  first  coat,  and  17  yards  each  additional  coat. 


WHITE  PAINT. 

Inside  work.  Outside  work. 

White  lead,  ground  in  oil 80      80 

Boiled  oil 14.5 9 

Raw  oil 9 

Spirits  turpentine 8      4 

New  wood-work  requires  1  pound  to  the  square  yard  for  three  coats. 


182 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 


SPEED  FOR  CIRCULAR  SAWS. 
36  inches  in  diameter 1000  revolutions  per  minute. 


38 
40 
42 
44 
46 
48 
50 
52 
54 
56 
58 
60 
62 
64 
66 
68 
70 
72 
74 
76 


950 
900 
870 
840 
800 
760 
725 
700 
675 
650 
625 
600 
575 
500 
545 
530 
515 
500 
485 
475 


Shingle  machine  saws 1400 


TO  MEASURE  CORN  IN  THE  CRIB. 

This  rule  will  apply  to  a  crib  of  any  size  or  kind.  Two  cubic  feet  of 
good,  sound,  dry  corn  in  the  ear,  will  make  a  bushel  of  shelled  corn.  To 
get,  then,  the  quantity  of  shelled  corn  in  a  crib  of  corn  in  the  ear,  measure 
the  length,  breadth  and  height  of  the  crib,  inside  of  the  rail ;  multiply  the 
length  by  the  breadth,  and  the  product  by  the  height ;  then  divide  the  pro- 
duct by  two,  and  you  have  the  number  of  bushels  of  shelled  corn  in  the 
crib. 

To  find  the  number  of  bushels  of  apples,  potatoes,  etc.,  in  a  bin,  mul- 
tiply the  length,  breadth  and  thickness  together,  and  this  product  by  8, 
and  point  off  one  figure  in  the  product  for  decimals. 


AGES  OF  ANIMALS,  ETC. 

Elephant,  100  years  and  upwards ;  Rhinoceros,  20 ;  Camel,  100 ;  Lion, 
23  to  70 ;  Tigers,  Leopards,  Jaguars  and  Hyenas  (in  confinement) ,  about 
25  years;  Beaver,  50  years;  Deer,  20;  Wolf,  20;  Fox  14  to  16;  Llamas, 
15;  Chamois,  25;  Monkeys  and  Baboons,  16  to  18  years;  Hare,  8;  Squirrel, 
7;  Rabbit,  7;  Swine,  25;  Stag,  under  50;  Horse,  30;  Ass,  30;  Sheep, 
under  10 ;  Cow,  20 ;  Ox,  30 ;  Swans,  Parrots  and  Ravens,  200 ;  Eagle,  100 ; 
Geese,  80;  Hens  and  Pigeons,  10  to  16;  Hawks,  30  to  40;  Crane,  24; 
Blackbird,  10  to  12;  Peacock,  20;  Pelican,  40  to  50;  Thrush,  8  to  10; 
Wren,  2  to  3 ;  Nightingale.  15 ;  Blackcap,  15 ;  Linnet,  14  to  23 ;  Goldfinch, 
20  to  24 ;  Redbreast,  10  to  12 ;  Skylark,  10  to  30 ;  Titlark,  5  to  6 ;  Chaffinch, 
20  to  24;  Starling,  10  to  12;  Carp,  70  to  150;  Pike,  30  to  40;  Salmon,  16; 
Codfish,  14  to  17;  Eel,  10;  Crocodile,  100;  Tortoise,  100  to  200;  Whale, 
estimated,  1,000;  Queen  Bees  live  4  years;  Drones,  4  months;  Working 
Bees,  6  months. 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  183 

TO  DETERMINE  WEIGHT  OF  LIVE   CATTLE. 

Measure  in  inches  the  girth  around  the  breast,  just  behind  the  shoul- 
der blade,  and  the  length  of  the  back  from  the  tail  to  the  fore  part  of  the 
shoulder  blade.  Multiply  the  girth  by  the  length,  and  divide  by  144.  If 
the  girth  is  less  than  3  feet,  multiply  the  quotient  by  11.  If  between  3  and 
5  feet,  multiply  by  16.  If  between  5  and  7  feet,  multiply  by  23.  If  between 
7  and  9  feet,  multiply  by  31.  If  the  animal  is  lean,  deduct  1-20  from  the 
result,  or  take  the  girth  and  length  in  feet,  multiply  the  square  of  the  girth 
by  the  length,  and  multiply  the  product  by  3.36.  The  result  will  be  the 
answer  in  pounds.  The  live  weight,  multipled  by  6.05,  gives  a  near  ap- 
proximation to  the  net  weight. 


TO  ESTIMATE  THE  AMOUNT  OF  HAY  IN  A  MOW. 

A  gentleman  largely  engaged  in  the  growing  of  hay  and  stock  in 
Orange  County,  N.  Y.,  writes :.  "  In  this  part  of  the  country  we  sell  hay  by 
measurement,  in  a  mow,  and  allow  512  cubic  feet  for  a  ton,  and  it  comes 
out  very  generally  correct.  I  have  just  sold  a  mow  of  hay  and  weighed  it, 
and  measured  the  mow,  and  this  rule  proved  correct." 

The  above  rule  no  doubt  approximates  as  closely  as  possible  to  a  cor- 
rect standard,  the  number  of  cubic  feet  required  for  a  ton  varying  a  little 
on  account  of  the  difl'ereut  degrees  of  pressure  to  which  the  hay  has  been 
subjected,  and  also  with  the  quality  of  the  hay  as  regards  fineness. 


A  CAR  LOAD. 

As  a  general  rule  the  following  quantities  constitute  a  car  load  through- 
out Canada  and  the  United  States,  viz.,  20,000  Ibs.,  or  70  bbls.  of  salt.  70 
of  lime,  70  of  flour,  60  of  whiskey,  200  sacks  of  flour,  6  cords  of  hard  wood, 
7  do.  of  soft  wood,  16  head  of  horses,  18  to  20  head  of  cattle,  50  to  60  head  of 
hogs,  80  to  100  head  of  sheep,  9,000  feet  of  solid  boards,  17,000  feet  of 
siding,  13,000  feet  of  flooring,  40,000  shingles,  one-half  less  of  hard  lum- 
ber, one-fourth  Ifess  of  green  lumber,  one-tenth  less  of  joists,  scantling  and 
all  other  large  timber ;  340  bushels  of  wheat,  360  of  corn,  680  of  oats,  400 
of  barley,  360  of  flaxseed,  360  of  apples,  430  of  Irish  potatoes,  356  of  sweet 
potatoes,  1,000  bushels  of  bran. 


SAVINGS  BANKS. 

These  institutions,  which  are  scattered  thickly  throughout  New  Eng- 
land, are  of  the  greatest  value  to  our  people.  They  furnish  a  convenient 
and  safe  place  for  keeping  the  savings  ol  the  thrifty,  and  they  undoubt- 
edly cause  much  money  to  be  saved  which  would  otherwise  be  wasted. 
Let  no  family  be  content  till  a  Savings  Bank  book  is  begun  for  the  younger 
members.  It  will  give  them  an  excellent  start  in  life.  Moreover  these 
small  sums  being  brought  together  are  made  available  for  buildings  and 
improvements,  which  without  them,  could  not  be  made.  They  form  a 
large  part  of  the  CAPITAL  of  the  courr.ry,  and  it  is  the  CAPITAL  of  the 
country  which  enables  the  labor  of  the  country  to  maintain  itself,  and 
make  further  savings.  WOKK— LKAKX — SAVK!  These  are  the  watch- 
words for  us  in  New  England;  so  shall  we  maintain  the  proud  position 
won  by  our  fathers,  and  so  shall  we  maintain  and  increase  our  prosperity. 


184  THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION. 

INTEREST  LAWS   OF   ALL  THE    STATES. 


States  and  Territories. 

PENALTY  OF  USURY. 

g, 
3 

Special. 

Alabama  

8 

No  penalty  

10 

No  limit 

Arkansas  

ti        ti 

fi 

ti      11 

«        it 

10 

ti      it 

ti        11 

10 

11      11 

Connecticut  

Forfeiture  of  all  interest  

7 

11      11 

Dakota  

7 

18  per  ct 

C 

6     " 

District  of  Columbia 

<  '           "  all  interest  

(] 

10     " 

Florida  

No  penalty  

8 

No  limit 

7 

12  per  ct 

Idaho  

§300  fine  or  imp.  6  months,  or  both* 

10 

21      " 

Illinois  

Forfeiture  of  all  interest  

(j 

10      " 

Indiana  

"  interest  and  costs  

(] 

10      " 

6 

10      " 

Kansas  

"       "     over  12  per  cent 

1 

12      " 

Kentucky  

'  '  all  interest  

(] 

10      " 

Louisiana  

5 

8      " 

(] 

\o  limit 

Maryland  

Forfeiture  of  excess  

C, 

(5  per  ct 

Massachusetts  

No  penalty.     6  per  ct.  on  judgment  . 

G 

No  limit. 
10  per  ct 

'  "           "       •'      over  7  percent 

12      " 

No  penalty  

f, 

No  limit 

Missouri  

(i 

1  u  per  ct. 

10 

Nebraska  

Forfeiture  of  all  interest  and  costs  •  . 

10 

12  per  ct. 

Nevada  ..   ...  ...... 

No  penalty  

10 

No  limit. 

New  Hampshire  

Forfeiture  of  3  times  interest  rec'd  • 

(i 

G  per  ct. 

"            i  '  an  interest  

o 

C 

No  penalty  

6 

12 

<; 

0 

North  Carolina  

'           "  interest.  ...  >  

r, 

8 

Ohio  ... 

n 

8 

Oregon  

'           "  priucip'l,  int.  and  excess 

10 

12      • 

Pennsylvania  

'           "  excess  Act  of  1858.... 

n 

G      ' 

Rhode  Island  

'           "  unless  bv  contract.  J  ... 

C, 

No  limit. 

No  penalty  

Tennessee  

Forf  of  over  G  per  ct    and  $100  line 

6 

10  per  ct. 

s 

Xo  limit 

Utah             

«i        11 

10 

Vermont  ••       ....... 

Forfeiture  of  excess  on  R.  R  bouds 

6 

7  per  ct. 

Virginia  

G 

12      " 

10 

No  limit 

\Vest  Virginia  

Forfeiture  of  excess  

(', 

6  per  ct. 

TiVisconsin  

7 

10      " 

10 

No  limit 

*  Liable  to  nriest  for  misdemeanor. 

t  Also  punisli:ii)!e  as  a  misdemeanor.    Banks  forfeit  interest  only,  or  double  the 
interest  if  churned  in  advaure. 
J  Also,  G  pur  cent,  ou  judgment. 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION.  185 

DUTIES   ON   PRODUCE. 

Barley 10  cents  per  bushel. 

Barley  malt 20     "  " 

Buckwheat 10  per  cent. 

Beeswax 20        " 

Beans 10        " 

Butter 4  cents  per  pound. 

Cheese 4     "  " 

Cider 20  per  cent. 

Corn 10  cents  per  bushel. 

Cornmeal 10  per  cent. 

Flaxseed 20  cents  per  bushel. 

Flour,  wheat 20  per  cent. 

Hay $2.00  per  ton. 

Hops 8  cents  per  pound. 

Honey 20  cents  per  gallon. 

Oats 10  cents  per  bushel. 

Oatmeal 4  cent  per  pound. 

Onions 10  per  cent. 

Peas,  dried 10        " 

Peas,  green 10        " 

Potatoes 15  cents  per  bushel. 

Poultry,  dressed 10  per  cent. 

Rice,  clean 2|  cents  per  pound. 

Rice,  unclean 14      "  " 

Rye 10  cents  per  bushel. 

Rye  flour 4  cent  per  pound. 

Seed,  grass 20  per  cent. 

Turnips 10        " 

Vinegar 74  cents  per  gallon. 

Wheat 20      "     per  bushel. 

Starch,  corn  or  potato 2      "     per  pound. 

Starch,  rice 24    "  " 

Starch,  other 24    "  " 

^^ Apples,  eggs,  bed  feathers,  fire  wood,  wood  ashes  and  live  poultry 
are  admitted  FREE  OF  DUTY. 


UNIFORM  PACKAGES   OF  FLOUR. 

American  export  flour  is  put  up  in  140  and  280  pounds  bags,  while  our 
barrels  hold  196  pounds.  There  is  little  or  no  complaint  on  this  side  of 
the  water  about  the  large  bags  being  unwieldy  or  too  heavy  to  carry  on  a 
man's  back,  for  the  reason  that  we  have  better  modes  of  handling  these 
packages,  as  well  as  our  barrels.  In  this  matter  American  methods  are  as 
much  superior  in  every  way  as  in  elevator  work.  In  French  ports,  for  in- 
stance, wheat  is  loaded  and  unloaded  in  sacks,  which  are  carried  to  or  fro 
by  men,  while  Americans  load  and  unload  with  mechanical  appliances, 
which  reduce  not  only  the  manual  labor  but  the  time  occupied  in  the  work 
to  a  minimum.  This  does  not,  however,  alter  the  fact  that  it  would  be 
better  for  the  trade  of  both  countries,  as  well  as  all  others  concerned,  if 
uniform  packages  were  adopted  for  flour,  and,  as  a  correlative,  for  wheat 
measurement.  Barrels,  half  barrels,  bags,  bushels,  quarters  and  centals, 
form  a  sad  mixture,  and  must  eventually  simmer  down  into  one  set  of 
weights,  to  be  universally  adopted. 


186 


THE    GROCER'S    COMPANION 


FREIGHTS.  —  QUANTITY  OF  GOODS    WHICH    COMPOSE  A  TON. 
[FROM  THE  BY-LAWS  OF  THE  NEW  YORK  CHAMBER  OF  COMMERCE.] 

That  tlie  articles,  the  bulk  of  which  shall  compose  a  ton,  to  equal  A  TOX 
of  heavy  materials,  shall  be  in  weight  as  follows :  1568  Ibs.  coffee  in  casks, 
1830  Ibs.  in  bags;  1120  Ibs.  of  cocoa  in  casks,  1307  Ibs  in  bags. 

950  Ibs.  pimento  in  casks,  1110  in  bags. 

Eight  barrels  of  flour,  196  Ibs.  each. 

Six  barrels  of  beef,  pork,  tallow,  pickled  fish,  pitch,  tar  and  turpen- 
tine. 

Twenty  hundred  pounds  of  pig  and  bar  iron,  potashes,  sugar,  logwood, 
fustic,  Nicarauga  wood,  and  all  heavy  dyewoods,  rice,  honey,  copper  ore, 
and  all  other  heavy  goods 

Sixteen  hundred  pounds  of  coffee,  cocoa  and  dried  codfish,  in  bulk,  and 
twelve  hundred  pounds  of  dried  codfish,  in  casks  of  any  size. 

Six  hundred  pounds  of  ship  bread  in  casks,  seven  hundred  in  bags, 
and  eight  hundred  in  bulk. 

Two  hundred  gallons  (wine  measure),  reckoning  the  full  contents  of 
the  casks,  oil,  wine,  brandy,  or  any  kind  of  liquors. 

Twenty-two  bushels  of  grain,  peas  or  beans,  in  casks. 

Thirty-six  bushels  of  grain  in  bulk. 

Thirty-six  bushels  of  European  salt. 

Thirty-one  bushels  West  India  salt. 

Twenty-nine  bushels  of  sea-coal. 

Forty  feet  (cubic  measure)  of  mahogany,  square  timber,  oak  plank, 
pine  and  other  boards,  beavers,  furs,  peltry,  beeswax,  cotton,  wool  and 
bale  goods,  of  all  kinds. 

One  hogshead  of  tobacco,  and  ten  hundred  pounds  of  dry  hides. 

Eight  hundred  pounds  of  China  raw  silk,  ten  hundred  pounds  of  net 
bohea,  and  eight  hundred  do.  green  tea. 


EXCHANGE   ON  ENGLAND. 


5  per  ct.,  $4.  66.  7 

7  per  ct.,  $4.75.6 

85  per  ct.,  $4.83.3 

104  per  ct.,.  $4.91.1 

54 

4.68.0 

74 

4.76.7 

9 

4.84.4 

101 

4.92.2 

5| 

4.70.0 

74 

4.77.8 

94 

4.85.6 

11 

4.93.3 

6 

4.71.1 

71 

4.78.9 

9-i 

4.86.7 

114 

4.94.4 

64 

4.72.2 

8 

4.80.0 

<)4 

J5 

4.87.8 

114 

4.95.  R 

64 

4.73.3 

84 

4.81.1 

10 

4.88.9 

HI 

4.96.7 

61 

4.74.4 

84 

4.82.2 

104 

4.90.0 

21 

4.97.8 

Old  par  value  of  the  Pound  Sterling  is  $4.44.4.  Present  standard 
value  is  $4.84.4.  When  exchange  is  at  9  per  cent.,  it  is  then  at  par  value ; 
if  less  than  9  it  is  below ;  if  higher  than  9  it  is  above. 

To  reduce  old  par  value,  $4.44.4,  to  dollars,  multiply  by  40  and  divide 
by  9.  To  reduce  dollars  to  old  par  value,  reverse  by  multiplying  by  9  and 
dividing  by  40.  The  shillings  and  pence  must  first  be  reduced  to  decimals 
of  a  pound. 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Acid  Phosphates 5 

Adulterations 5 

Alcohol 8 

Alden  Dried  Fruit 8 

Allspice 8 

Almonds 9 

Alum 9 

Ammonia 10 

Anchovies 10 

Anise-Seed *. 10 

Annatto 10 

Annear  Sauce 11 

Apples 11 

Apricots 11 

Arrow-Root 12 

Artichoke 12 

Asparagus 12 

Axle-Grease 13 

Avoirdupois 13 

Bags  (Paper) 13 

Bananas 13 

Baking  Powders  and  Bread  Prep- 
arations    14 

Barley 14 

Barrel 15 

Barter 15 

Beans 1C 

Beeswax 16 

Beet 16 

Benzine 17 

Bird  Food,  etc 17 

Blackberry 17 

Blacking 17 

Blncing 13 


PAGB 

Bologna  Sausage 18 

Bonds  of  Surety 18 

Borax 18 

Brandy 19 

Brawn 19 

Brazil  Nuts 19 

Bread 20 

Bretzel 20 

Brick  Tea 20 

Broma 20 

Brooms 20 

Brushes 21 

Buckwheat 21 

Bushel 22 

Batter 22 

Butternut 23 

Cabbage 23 

Caddy 24 

Camphor 24 

Canary-Seed 25 

Candles 25 

Canned  Goods 2(> 

Capers  29 

Caramels 2!) 

Caraway  Seeds 2!> 

Carbolic  Acid 2!) 

Carrots 29 

Casava  or  Mandioc 29 

Cassia  Bark 30 

Cassia  Buds 30 

Castor  Oil 30 

Catsup 30 

Cauliflower 31 

Cayenne 31 


188 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Cereals 31 

Celery 31 

Chalk 31 

Champignons 32 

Charges 32 

Cheddar 32 

Cherries 32 

Cheese 32 

Chestnuts 34 

Chicory 35 

Chloride  of  Lime 35 

Chocolate 35 

Chow-Chow 36 

Chowder 36 

Chutney 36 

Cider 36 

Cigars 36 

Cinnamon  Bark 37 

Citron 37 

Clams 38 

Cloves 38 

Cocoa  or  Cacao 38 

Cocoanuts 38 

Cod-fish 39 

Coffee 40 

Compressed  Yeast 44 

Condensed  Milk 45 

Confectionery 45 

Copperas  (Green  Vitriol) 46 

Coriander  Seed 47 

Cork 47 

Corn 47 

Cotton-Seed  OU 47 

Crabs 48 

Crackers 48 

Cranberry 49 

Craw  Fish 49 

Cream 49 

Creamery 49 

Cream  of  Tartar 50 

Cucumbers 50 

Currants 50 

Currants  (Dried) ~>  1 

Curry  Powder  or  Curry  Paste. . .  51 

Cusk ." HI 

Cuttle-Fish 51 

Damaged  Goods 51 

Dandelion 52 

Dates 52 

Dermestes 52 

Dextrine  or  British  Gum 52 

Dutch  Standard 52 

Dyes 53 


Eggs 


PAGE 

Egg  Plant 54 

Eleme 54 

Epsom  Salt 54 

Evaporated  Goods 54 

Extract  of  Meat 55 

Extracts  for  Flavoring 55 


Figs 56 

Filberts 56 

Fireworks 57 

Fruit  Augurs 57 

Fruit  Butters 57 

Fruit  (Green) 57 

Game 57 

Garlic 57 

Gauge  Rod 58 

Gelatine 58 

Ginger 58 

Glauber's  Salt 59 

Glue 59 


Glucose 59 

Gluten 67 

Goodwill 67 

Gooseberries 67 

Grace  (Days  of) 67 

Grain 67 

Grapes 67 

Gramme 68 

Grass  Seed 68 

Grease 59 

Grist 60 

Grits 60 

Groats 60 

Grocer 60 

Gauva 60 

Gum 60 

Gumbo  or  Okra 60 

Gunny  Bags 60 

Gunpowder 61 

Hake 61 

Halibut 61 

Hay 61 

Hazel-Nut  61 

Head  Cheese 61 

Hemp 61 

Herbs 62 

Hermetical  Sealing 62 

Herring 62 

Hickory-Nut 63 

Hominy 63 

Honey 63 

Hops" 64 

Horehouud 65 

Horse-Radish 65 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Huckleberry,    Whortleberry   or 

Blueberry 65 

Indian  Corn 65 

Indigo 66 

Indian  Meal 66 

Ink 66 

Insects 66 

Insurance 66 

Introduction 3 

Irish  Moss 66 

Isinglass 67 

Jams 68 

Jars 68 

Jellies 68 

Jerusalem  Artichoke 69 

Jordan  Almonds 09 

Jute 69 


Keg 69 

Kerosene 69 

Labels 70 

Lamp  Black 71 

Lamps  and  Lamp-Wics 71 

Lard 72 

Lard  Cheese 73 

Lard-Oil 73 

Leakage 74 

Lemon 74 

Lemonade • 74 

Lentils 75 

Lettuce 75 

Licorice 75 

Limburger  Cheese 75 

Lime 76 

Lime  Fruit 77 

Lime-Fruit  Juice 77 

Limitations  (Statute  of) 78 

Linseed-Oil 79 

Liquors 79 

Liquid  Measure 79 

Liquid  Rennet 79 

Lobsters 80 

Logwood 80 

Love  Apple 80 

Lozenges 80 

Lucca-Oil 81 

Macaroni 81 

Mace 82 

Machine  and  Lubricating  Oils  ...  82 

Mackerel 83 

Madder 84 

Malaga  Grapes 85 


PAGB 

Malt 85 

Malt  Vinegar 85 

Mango 85 

Manilla 85 

Manufacturers 85 

Maple  Sugar 86 

Matches 87 

Marjoram  (Sweet) 88 

Marmalade 88 

Marrowfat 88 

Martynias 88 

Mats 88 

Mead 88 

Meal 88 

Measures 89 

Meat  (Fresh) 89 

Medicines  (Patent) 89 

Melons 89 

Metrical  System 89 

Mildew 90 

Milk 90 

Millet 90 

Mince  Meat 90 

Mineral  Waters 90 

Mint 90 

Molasses 90 

Mucilage 91 

Mush 91 

Mushrooms 92 

Musk-Melon 92 

Mustard 92 


Nails 93 

Nasturtium 94 

Nuts 94 

Nutmegs 94 

Oatmeal 94 

Oils  (Vegetable) 95- 

Oils  (Commercial) 96 

Oleomargarine 97 

Olives 97 

Onion 97 

Orange 99 

Oyster 100 

Packages  (Empty) 103 

Paddy 103 

Pails 103 

Pulm-Oil 103 

Paper 103 

Paper  Bags 105 

ParaHine 105 

Paris  Green 105 

Parsley 106- 

Parsnip 106- 


190 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Pastes 106 

Pea 106 

Peaches 107 

Peanuts 108 

Pecan  Nuts 109 

Pears 109 

Pepper 109 

Peppermint 1 10 

Perfumed  Lye 110 

Pickles 110 

Pipes Ill 

Pint Ill 

Placards Ill 

Plums Ill 

Plum  Pudding 112 

Polariscope 112 

Polenta 112 

Pollock 112 

Porter 112 

Pop-Corn 112 

Pork  and  its  Products 113 

Petroleum  or  Coal  Oil : . . . .  116 

Pickerel 116 

*  Port  Wine 116 

Potash 117 

Potato 117 

Pineapple 117 

Poultry 118 

Poultry  Seasoning 118 

Preserves 118 

Potted  Meats 119 

Prunes 119 

Pulverize 120 

Pumpkins 120 


Quince . 
Quintal 


120 

120 


Rabbits 120 

Racohout  des  Arabcs 120 

Radish 120 

Raisins 122 

Rape  Seed 122 

Raspberries 121 

Rats 122 

Ream 122 

Rennet 122 

Revalenta  Arabica 122 

Rhubarb  or  Pie-Plant 122 

Rice 123 

Rope 124 

Rosin 124 

Root  Beer  Extract 124 

Roquefort  Cheese 124 

Rum 125 

llust 125 


PAOR 

Russet 125 

Rye 125 

Sack 1 25 

Sage 12G 

Sage  Cheese 12G 

Sago 12G 

Salads 12G 

Salad  Dressing 126 

Salt 126 

Salmon 129 

Saltpetre 130 

Samp 130 

Samples .130 

Sandwich  Meats 131 

Sapolio 131 

Sapouifier 131 

Sap-Sago 131 

Sardines 131 

Sauces 131 

Sauerkraut 132 

Sausage '. 132 

Scoops 132 

Scrapple 132 

Scales 132 

Sealing  Wax 132 

Sea-Moss 133 

Seeds 133 

Self-Measuring  Faucets 133 

Semiolina 133 

Shad 133 

Shadine 134 

Shaddock 134 

Shaker  Goods 134 

Shells 134 

Shellbark 134 

Shot 134 

Show-Cases 134 

Sherbet 1 35 

Sherry 1  ;>5 

Shrimps 135 

Shrub 1 35 

Sieves 1135 

Smelt 135 

Smoked  Meats 13-> 

Smoked  Sardines 136 

Snuff 13G 

Soakage 136 

Soap 136 

Soap  Powders 139 

Soapstone 131) 

Soda 1 ,'!!) 


Sorghum  Sugar 139 

Sorrel 110 

Soup 140 

Soy  110 


INDEX. 


191 


PAGE 

Specialties 140 

Speculation 141 

Sperm  Oil 141 

Spermaceti 141 

Spices 141 

Spinach 141 

Sprats 142 

Squash 142 

Starch 142 

Starch  Polish 144 

Stove  Polish 144 

Strawberries 144 

Succotash 144 

Sugar 145 

Sulphur 147 

Swells 147 

Syrup 147 

Tallow 148 

Tamarinds 148 

Tanks  for  Oil 148 

Tapioca 148 

Tare 149 

Tartaric  Acid 149 

Tea 149 

Thyme  153 

Tierce 155 

Tin  Cans 155 

Tobacco 156 

Tolu 159 


FAOB 

Tomato 159 

Tongue 159 

Tonqua  Beans 159 

Trichina 160 

Tripe 160 

Trout 160 

Truck 160 

Truffles 161 

Tunny  Fish 161 

Turmeric 161 

Turnip 161 

Turtle 161 

Ullage 162 

Valencias 162 

Vanilla 162 

Vegetables 162 

Vinegar 162 

Walnut 163 

Washing  Powders  and  Fluids  ...  163 

Wax 163 

Wheat 164 

Wheat  Flour 164 

Whiskey 165 

Wine 165 


Yeast. 


.16G 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  ETC. 


United  States  Money 167 

Avoirdupois  Weight 167 

Liquid  Measure 167 

3>ry  Measure .- . .  168 

Troy  Weight 168 

Apothecaries'  Weight 168 

Measure  of  Surface 1C8 

Miscellaneous  Table 168 

Weights     of     Original      Packa- 
ges   169 

Foreign     Weights     and     Meas- 
ures   170 

Weights  of  Produce 172 

Rapid     Progress     of     Marking 
Goods  at  any  desired  per  cent. 

protlt 173 

Marking  Goods 1 74 

Metric  System  of  Weights  and 
Measures 175 


Aliquot  Parts  of  One  Hundred 

and  One  Thousand 175 

Water  in  Different  Woods 175 

Business  Laws 176 

To  find  the  Capacity  of  Bins, 

Boxes,  etc 177 

How  to  Conduct  a  Successful 

Business 178 

Tensile  Strength  of  Different 

Kinds  of  Wood 178 

Comparative  Yield  of  Various 

Vegetables 178 

Homestead  and  other  Property 

Exemptions 179 

Interest  Rules 180 

Legal  Holidays  in  Various  States.  181 

Painting ". 181 

Speed  for  Circular  Saws 182 

To  Measure  Corn  in  the  Crib 182 


192 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Ages  of  Animals,  etc 182 

To  Determine  the  Weight  of  Live 

Cattle 183 

To  Estimate  the  amount  of  Hay 

inaMow 183 

A  Car  Load 183 


FAGB 
Savings  Banks 183 

Interest  Laws  of  all  the  States.  .184 

Duties  on  Produce 185 

Uniform  Packages  of  Flour 185 

Freights — The  Quantity  of  Goods 
which  compose  a  ton 186 


UCSB   LlBRAFf 


University  of  California 

REGI?NAL  L|BRARY  FACILITY 
Hilgard  Avenue,  Los  Angeles,  CA  90024-1388 
Return  this  material  to  the  library 
from  which  it  was  borrowed. 


L  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


A     000  607  1 70     8 


